1.- HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF THE MANAGEMENT OF PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS.
For more than two centuries, operations management has been recognized as an important factor in our economic well-being, with a progressive development identified by a series of names: industrial management, production management and operations management, all of which describe it. General discipline, the order of the denominations reflects the evolution of modern operations management. The traditional view of industrial administration began in the 18th century with Adam Smith that subdivision and specialization in labor yield economic benefits. Smith recommended dividing jobs into subtasks and reassigning workers to specialized tasks where they could become highly skilled and efficient.
At the beginning of the 20th century, Frederick W. Taylor implanted Smith's theories and promoted scientific administration throughout the already vast industrial complex of his time. Since then and until 1930 the traditional approach prevailed, many of the techniques that are still used today were conceived in those times. A brief overview of these other contributions to the administration appears in Table 1.1.
Production management was the most commonly accepted designation from the 1930s to the 1950s, as Frederick Taylor's work spread more widely, and other management scholars took the scientific approach, techniques were devised that placed the economic efficiency in the very essence of industrial organizations. The workers were placed under the microscope, in order to end the waste of efforts and achieve greater efficiency. Company managers discover that workers have multiple needs, and not only economically changed their points of view.
Psychologists, sociologists and other social scientists, undertook the study of people and their behavior in the workplace, in addition, economists, mathematicians and computer scientists contributed novel analytical approaches and greater technical refinement.
Already in the 1970s, there were two clear methodological changes:
1.- The most evident was the new name: OPERATIONS ADMINISTRATION; that naturally manifested the changes that occurred in the industrial and service sectors in the economy. As the service sector grew in importance, the shift from production to operations accentuated the expansion of the field in service organizations as well as those that produced physical goods.
2.- More subtle, it was the beginning of the interest of the synthesis and not only in the analysis, who stood out in this trend was WICKHAM SKINNER the American industry woke up from its abandonment of the operational function as a decisive weapon in the global competitive strategy of all organization. Previously engaged in an intense analytical orientation and an emphasis on marketing and finance, they had failed to ensure that production activities are integrated at the highest levels of strategy and organizational policy in order to provide precise, nondifferent leadership and fragmented, in all organizations. The operational function plays a key strategic role in meeting the needs of consumers worldwide.
1776 Adam Smith Manufacturing Labor Specialization
1799 Interchangeable parts, cost accounting Eli Whitney and others.
1832 Division of labor by skill; Charles Skill Placement, Fundamentals of Babbage Times Study
1900 Scientific administration; time studies and Frederick W. movements, division of planning and Taylor activities of operations are designed
1900 Study of movements in the Frank B. Gilberth stations
1901 Programming Techniques for Employees, Machines, Henry L. Gantt Manufacturing Positions
1915 Economic lot size in inventory control FW Harris
1927 Human Relations. Hawthorne Elton Studios May
1931 Application of Statistical Inference to Walter A. Product Quality, Shewhart Quality Control Charts
1935 Application of statistical sampling in the control of HF Dodge and quality; HG Romig sampling inspection plans
1940 Applications of Operations Research in PMS Blacket WWII and others5
1946 Digital Computers
1947 linear programming
1950 Mathematical programming, nonlinear and stochastic processes
1951 Commercial Digital Computer; possibility of large-scale calculations
1960 Organizational behavior, continuation of the study of people in their work environment
1970 Integration of operations in global strategies and systems. Application of computers in manufacturing, programming and control and planning of MRP material requirements. 1980.
Application of Japanese techniques for quality and productivity, robotics, computer-aided design, and computer-aided manufacturing (CAD / CAM) John Mauchly and Jp Eckert George B. Dantzig, William Orchard- Hays, and others A. Charnes, WW Cooper, H. Raifla, and others Sperry Univac L. Cummings, L. Porter, and others J. Orlicky and O. Wright WE Deming and J swear.
2.- THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
The thought of the illustration. Rationalism. The ideas of human rights. Equality and the theory of the contract, its political meaning.
The industrial revolution created the basis for the bourgeoisie to obtain economic power, which allowed it to engage in a series of political struggles against the nobility and the State, which they combined with the theories and theses known as: THE IDEAS OF ILLUSTRATION.
In the economic field, ECONOMIC LIBERALISM. It was the ideological expression in that field, the illustration should be considered as the most representative political movement of the bourgeoisie. Under its principles, seventeenth-century thinkers undertook a critique of monarchical systems, feudal institutions, and the church. The political ideology of the bourgeoisie, directed against feudal and absolutist norms, had been formed for a long time with contributions from various scholars, until specifying a doctrine whose approaches gave rise to a new political system. That it transformed parliamentary monarchies or replaced them with republican systems, which are the basis for what are now called nations or nation states. The historical journey of bourgeois ideology began when that sector began,to take their place on the social ladder because of business development.
In the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries, there was a turn in the ideological field, the result of new practices, characterized by a nonconforming attitude towards religious dogmas and the pressure exerted by feudal lords on trade. The tendency to research and observe nature emerged. Special emphasis was placed on human interests.
These trends led to the emergence of theories, which sought to strengthen the new model of capitalist production. The organization of a state independent from the church, with a single and centralized power, was promoted and disseminated. Political theories until the 16th century postulated:
1.- The possibility that social life was organized by men and their institutions, without the participation of the church.
2.- The denial that the ecclesiastical power submitted to the civil power.
The ways of thinking continued to expand in the 17th and 18th centuries. However, the new social conditions led to the advent of other forms of struggle in the field of ideas.
England, Holland and France. They achieved great successes in commerce and industry, and relations with the colonies expanded; However, feudal relations in Western Europe remained strong obstacles to capitalist development; although the absolutist feudal state helped the process of capital accumulation, granting incentives and fixing protectionist taxes, providing labor through the application of laws, which forced peasants to lose their land. That Feudal State protected the commercial routes, carried out actions tending to participate in the productive activity and control it, however, the state action was accompanied by countless restrictions by means of a meticulous regulation and defended the bases of the governmental organization.
The growing industrial bourgeoisie found the absolutist monarchy inoperative and contested the restrictions to its rights, reason why it showed interest in the theories of natural law, which had been exposed in the writings of some thinkers, such as Hugo Grocio spinoza, Tomás Hobbes and John Locke.
The legal-natural school stated that the entire universe and society were governed by the same laws of nature. He stated that the state's restrictions were alien to the natural order, because they hindered the free play of man's actions.
The seventeenth-century legal-political thinking, which emerged in France, was represented by a group of thinkers. They formulated their theories, expressing them in writings of great value, not only for the accumulation of social concepts, but for their contributions in relation to various disciplines. Said doctrines were advocated by a different social order from that which until that time had been practiced. That group of thinkers, known as "Encyclopedists or Enlightened" gave a new orientation to bourgeois participation in social events.
The encyclopedists, with their theories, represented the group of thinkers capable of coping with the feudal organization that detected power. The illustration is the summary of the experiences of the philosophers of capitalism, important from many points of view, but fundamentally because they elaborated the basic principles of POLITICAL LIBERALISM. A simple comparison between four encyclopedists can give us an idea of their conceptions.
1.- LOCKE: English, he was the defender of the constitutional monarchy.
2.- VOLTAIRE: French, he sought reconciliation with enlightened absolutism.
3.- MONTESQUIEU: French, he was willing to accept the commitment to the nobility and approved the constitutional monarchy.
I propose the division of powers because I considered that a single person, the King, cannot accumulate all the power. Therefore he proposed three powers:
1.- Executive Power:
In the hands of the king, in charge of public administration and law enforcement.
2.- Legislative Power:
In charge of parliament, in charge of formulating laws.
3.- Judicial Power:
Represented by the courts, who would sanction the application of the laws.
4.- ROUSSEAU:
French, postulated a full political organization of power so that the state and its sovereignty passed into the hands of the people; he proclaimed the idea of democracy. In his book, the social contract, published in 1762. establishes that the state is formed due to a contract, freely established by all its members, from which the sovereignty of the people is derived, who can entrust his government to whomever he chooses, but can retrieve it when deemed necessary. It also points out that all men are equal by nature and this is the highest reason for every man to have rights and obligations in society.
2.- REFLECTION ON ECONOMIC PROCESSES AND WEALTH. FROM MERCANTILISM TO LIBERALISM.
The bourgeoisie as a social class, reached its highest level within the social forces of the time. Merchants. Landowners.- With the revolution, the industrialists openly fought to conquer economic, political and ideological power. The political-ideological struggle was not new, the wealthiest merchants, together with the state, had established a series of doctrines that stimulated profit; Among them, MERCANTILISM stood out.
This seventeenth century policy, called Mercantilism in England, Colbertism in France and Channelism in Germany. Its purpose was to dominate commerce to favor the national state. However, despite the fruits that this doctrine yielded, the bourgeoisie found imperfections that damaged its interests.
Before mercantilism (the capitalist stage of big trade) had taken its final form, objections began to be raised. Prominent men in English politics, such as Oliverio Cromwell, who at first believed that mercantilism, later became a decidedly anti-Mercantilist.
Some thinkers of the time considered that mercantilism was opposed to the natural laws that should govern society. This group of intellectuals, known as FISIOCRATAS. (a name that is due to the work of one of its members, Dupont de Nemorus, entitled Physiocracy, or the natural constitution of the most advantageous form of government for the human race), they deduced their theories from the advances in the natural sciences achieved by Copernicus and Newton, who had argued that nature is governed by immutable laws.
The physiocracy founded principles such as the following:
1.- Social, economic, social, economic and political phenomena are governed by the same natural laws of the universe.
2.- The perfection of all human institutions is achieved by allowing their free adaptation.
3.-Unlimited competition must be allowed.
4.- Misfortune and misery are due to the validity of archaic and destructive laws, which prevent the free play of natural law in human affairs.
Without denying the contributions of the physiocrats, it is considered that the most faithful theories to the new industrialism and capitalism were those elaborated by the classical Economists. This economic policy was ECONOMIC LIBERALISM. That it became the most outstanding theoretical weapon, used by the industrial bourgeoisie in its struggle to conquer power, through approaches such as:
- FREEDOM OF COMMERCE. FREE COMPETITION NON-STATE INTERVENTION IN THE ECONOMY
THE SUPREME AND INITIAL WORK OF ECONOMIC LIBERALISM IS DUE TO THE PEN OF ADAM SMITH, A SCOTTISH PHILOSOPHER. WHO UNDERLINED
1.- The importance of commerce and manufacturing for the state;
2.- He attributed to agriculture a less fundamental role than that pointed out by the physiocrats
3.- He especially revived the role of the social division of labor as a resource to increase productivity, 4.- He emphasized free trade;
5.- He based his theory on the international division of labor.
THESE IDEAS WERE GIVEN TO KNOW THROUGH A BOOK CALLED ESSAY ON THE NATURE AND CAUSES OF THE WEALTH OF THE NATIONS. SMITH'S IDEAS. THEY HAD A LOT OF ACCEPTANCE ABOUT EVERYTHING IN ENGLAND.
Even though Smith died before the Industrial Revolution had fully developed in England, his doctrines were in line with the state's non-interference policy, which was what the capitalists wanted. So his ideas were sponsored and exploited by the bourgeois class. The new ideology was a bulwark of singular importance to the interests of the industrial bourgeoisie.
The consolidation of capitalism determined the appearance of a working social class, better known as the proletariat, which also began its reorganization, the nuance of the class struggle, which was generated with industrialization, is testimony to this. The working conditions during the period under study were characterized by:
1. Unhealthy conditions in the workplace.
2. Exploitation of work in women and children.
3.- Overcrowding in the houses that were built around the manufacturing centers
4.- Population center with a shortage of services.
5.- Excessive work days.
6.- Insufficient wages to subsist.
7.- Unemployment (when the human force is replaced by the forces of the machines)
INVENTIONS OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
From crafts to business: The expansion that prepared the way to the industrial revolution, because of having made great advances in society, can be outlined as follows:
1.- Technical innovations to improve ocean navigation.
Astrolabe- Quadrant- Navigation charts- Compass- Maps.
Boats such as: Galleon- Corsair- Carraca - Urca- Caravel.
2.- Market Modifications:
Increase in trade volume - New products - Precious metals
Manufacturing activities- New areas of commerce- Growing supremacy of the western maritime cities- Decay of the Mediterranean maritime cities.
3.- Transformations of production relations:
Progressive disappearance of the servitude system- Appearance of wages in the workshop systems- Appearance of the workshop and the factory- New owners of the means of production- Increasing mobility of the population-
4.- Transformation of the production sphere:
New techniques and procedures of the textile industry- New organization of agriculture- Organization systems- Guilda - Guilds- Associations-
5.- Political transformations:
Theories about the State: Representative Government-
Theories about Wealth: Mercantilism, Physiocracy.
The English commercial revolution: it was a phenomenon that established conditions for the collapse of feudalism. It prepared the social conditions for the industrial revolution. It established the clearest and most definitive features for the emergence of the capitalist system. Another feature was the transformation of its agriculture. Land tenure. And its production. The new forms of land exploitation that were practiced in England in the 17th century gave a strong impetus to the rise of the machine age.
The English agricultural revolution: Boosted the monetary economy. - It allowed capital accumulation.- It stimulated the scientific procedures of production.-
Elements that changed: The feudal order of land tenure.- The agricultural exploitation systems.- The commercial agricultural economy.
Seventeenth-century English agriculture underwent notable changes in technique, which increased productivity and profits.
Introduction of new tools, the first sowing machine. Experiments to improve crops.- Improvements in the quality of bovine and equine livestock for loading.- Drying of marshy lands and application of scientific theories regarding the fertilization of soil based on vegetables and crop rotation.- Organization of scientific societies for promoting agricultural technical improvements.
The political structure in England knew: The rise of representative governments and parliamentary supremacy.- This parliamentary superiority was key in the organization of English society for the purposes of the bourgeoisie, because it allowed it to intervene in the conduct of government.
The growth of the English and European population is attributed to the industrial revolution. The revolution was partially stimulated by the population increase, but in turn, the machinist boom generated considerable demographic growth. The most characteristic demographic phenomenon was that of the migrations of large masses of population, which were grouped together where there were better means of subsistence.
International relations was a phenomenon that had a decisive impact on the industrial revolution.
France, lived then the Napoleonic advance and the Napoleonic wars, in Europe, between 1793 and 1815. They indirectly favored commercial and industrial development because this armed movement never reached English soil, also causing the productive growth of weapons, ammunition and other products, which were requested from England by the anti-Napoleonic nations.
England had several natural resources; Humid Climate and Navigable Rivers, Atmospheric Conditions, Hydraulic Force, Large Reserves of Coal and Iron Ore. Elements that amalgamated with others of a social nature, to give rise to the Industrial Revolution.
The textile branch was the first to be mechanized: until 1760, this productive branch was practiced in manual workshops, therefore, the introduction of mechanical methods was the culmination of important events and discoveries that were already brewing. The first breakdown of manual knitting methods occurred with the invention of John Kay's so-called Flying Bobbin, which decreased the amount of human labor employed in the cotton industry.
A WAVE OF INVENTIONS IN THE FIELD OF THE SPINNING MACHINE HAD THE TASK TO REVOLUTIONIZE THE TEXTILE BRANCH
In the early seventeenth century the methods for obtaining iron and charcoal were almost the same, which had been used for many years; Proof of this was the forest devastation, which originated since the smelting continued to be made with charcoal.
An important contribution was the construction of the first blast furnace, by John Smeaton and following the task, Pedro Onions and Enrique Cort achieved procedures to manufacture malleable iron at cheaper prices and in greater quantities.
Onions and Cort's methods were improved by José May around 1830, then by Enrique Bessemer two decades later.
Other prodigious discoveries that gave great mobility to industrial activities, such as iron rolling machines, new forms of organization of the primitive iron industry, such as those of Wilinson and John Roebuck, were immediate. the emergence of "allied" industries such as the extraction of coke (coal). And minerals and inventions such as the miners' safety lamp that reduced the frequency of accidents. For example: the Humpry Davy lamp with a large incandescent capacity, allowed to work without being in contact with underground gases.
A THIRD EVENT IN THE ORDER OF INDUSTRIAL ADVANCES WAS STEEL.
At the end of the 17th century it was still produced by the Slow, Hard and Expensive procedure of expelling impurities by heating iron in sandboxes, but the new industry required greater amounts of steel; in 1846 Guillermo Kelly achieved favorable results. The perfection of Kelly's invention was accomplished by Bessemer definitively, and this resulted in considerable volumes of that raw material.
The new "Machine Empire" required a radical transformation in the way of applying human labor to the industrial process. This gave rise to the factory which is the most characteristic modern way of concentrating and controlling work. In order for the factory to obtain its necessary characteristics as a social organism with other production relationships, it required:
- Liquidate the system of workshops, whose handmade production was limited Control of the industry by the capitalists Expansion of markets by commercial expansion Bring industry back to the Cities Transform the productive activity of the workers Establish a new labor organization.
Thus, the factory was not only the new place of production, but the new strategy to extract other values from work; It was the most significant transformation, from the labor and technical point of view, with the use of the "machine" that the industrial revolution brought.
CONSEQUENCES OF MACHINERY IN EUROPEAN LIFE:
The manufacturing centers had the greatest innovation: they established the guarantee for the capitalist to buy according to supply and demand THE WORK OF THE WORKERS.
For the first time, industry led men to establish contracts for work, impersonal production, and even the way in which the individual had to enter or leave the factory. With the creation of the factory, personnel management and control systems, banking systems and financing systems were innovated.
The modern theory of surplus value is only explained, understanding what a factory is and particularly its purpose. The factory was born at the moment when it was necessary to make the work of the workers more productive and this contribution laid the foundations for the consolidation of modern capitalism.
The steam engine is the first major form of motive energy supplied to factories. Its practical application to industry was due to the Scottish inventor. JAMES WATT.
In the field of steam engines, they preceded Watt, Dionisio Papin, and Tomás Savery.
The year 1769 marks the period in which the patent for the WATT steam engine is registered and this date marks the beginning of an era of cheaper industrial production systems.
The new steam-powered drive machinery had to wait a bit to be a commercial success, it was necessary:
- Manufacture lathes for the production of parts that will fit exactly. The Iron Foundry. Provide financial support to WATT.
In England, the scientific construction of roads began in the 17th century, when its engineers forgot the slopes and used the valleys, taking advantage of stones and mud subjected to roller pressure.
In France, the construction of roads began in the 18th century, with the participation of the central government, which prepared and financed the engineers. In the 19th century, France surpassed England and had the best road systems in Europe.
Many more important than the roads, from the commercial point of view, was the construction and reconstruction of navigation channels. In the mid-seventeenth century England began this task, the channels were opened as a need for trade; their utility was extended because they facilitated the transport of heavy raw materials.
These works on roads and navigation channels were surpassed by a new and important invention of transport.
THE RAILWAY:
It is the natural and gradual result of a certain number of technical progress brought about by the Industrial Revolution. Applying Watt's steam engine to locomotion and transportation, we can find the antecedent on railways, introduced in Germany in the 15th century. At first it was nothing other than the substitution of the horse for the steam engine as a means of locomotion. It owes its best fruits to inventors such as Guillermo Hedley and Jorge Stephenson.
Considered in a broad historical dimension, the Industrial Revolution must be understood as the most representative social movement of modern times, which witnessed the most vertiginous advance of everything that had happened on the planet, since the appearance of mankind.
Its most notable consequence for social organization in the world was: the contribution of knowledge and economic strategies, political and ideological for the consolidation of international capitalism.
3.- ORGANIZATION CONCEPT:
What is organization? Concept. Team of people who unite their personalities, efforts, desires, desires, enthusiasm, ambitions, responsibilities and commitments, in order to achieve common goals, benefiting third parties through joint effort. A foundation, ladies volunteers, economic collections for social causes, caused by natural phenomena.
What is Organization? It is the formal integration of a team of working people, who make capital contributions, buildings, land, ideas, resources, policies, knowledge, skills, responsibilities and professional, work, personal, family, social commitments, seeking to achieve excellent projects of lifetime. Applying Internal, external, mixed marketing.
An organization, regardless of whether it is private or government, if within its organizational structures keeps people unhappy, they do not deserve to exist.
Every organization for its analysis, planning, integration, management and control.
Training, structuring, integration and consolidation. It requires documents that give it meaning and direction. These are the different manuals that make it up, they must be well designed and flexible, in order to make changes.
What is meant by organizational structure?
It is the hierarchical structure, the result of job analysis, of the specific functions that each job must carry out, of frequent activities, infrequent and occasional activities, so that the structure has life, functions and achieves its objectives. The selection of personnel is made, given their characteristics, for the position. The ideal person for the ideal position.
This is Ideal, reality offers other things. Reality beats amazement
Types of organization: formal. It is the one that results from the manuals. Informal. It does not require any document. They are interpersonal relationships.
5.- PHASES OF THE PRODUCTIVE PROCESS
Conversion process
products
- GoodsServices
Comparison:
The current versus the desired
Random fluctuations
Feedback
Department store
The operational function or system is that part of the organization that exists fundamentally to generate or manufacture goods or services, (tangible and intangible) all organizations, regardless of their line of business, have conversion processes (banks, finance companies, hospitals, schools, transportation, entertainment, cinemas, theaters, circuses, etc. All will always seek to satisfy the human needs of the plaintiffs (principle of subsistence for all).
6.- DEPARTMENTS OF A COMPANY:
What is a department? It is one or more divisions of the organization. It is a well-defined area, a division or branch of an organization over which a manager has authority to carry out specific activities.
BUSINESS:
Economic entity where its members contribute with land, buildings, capital, work, administration, capacities, abilities, skills, responsibilities and commitments, professional, labor and social, in order to design, process, manufacture, store and sell goods and / or quality services that meet your most pressing needs.
INDUSTRY
Group of companies belonging to a productive and / or service business.
7.- RELATIONSHIP AND COMMUNICATION BETWEEN DEPARTMENTS:
In building the structure of an organization for a production system, it is essential that communications be carefully considered. The managers of the departments, must maintain effective communication, in order to know what is the situation of the company. In the supply of materials, raw materials, finished products, production plans and programs. The information system is the device that integrates and unites the activities of production, dynamic, viable, that responds to the needs of productivity operations, with quality, consistency and persistence.
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