In this work is a presents a clear example that there is a fundamental change in the nature and function of technology in the development of production, method engineering is the piece that is needed in the current analysis on how it develops the company.
This work provides a deep evaluation of the great changes that occur in the production of a company, which we focus mainly on the study of methods, which is a part of the study of work, in order to make improvements in the company, outlines transition guidelines for companies that want to be successful in this century to increase their productivity.
The interest of this research is based on the paradigm shifts which helps us to see very clearly and to take new actions, the issue of productivity provides a new perspective to better observe what is happening anywhere in our organizations, and apply the set of Industrial Engineering techniques is one of the motivations that we have for those students of this interdisciplinary career, in order to have the full optimization of the company's resources.
The work mainly presents a very clear, precise and concise theoretical framework of what the study of methods is about, that is, the productivity of the company, and the main thing of this work is the application of techniques for solving problems, Obtaining and presenting data through diagrams is the main focus, in order to develop the ideal method for human / machine relationships, in order to meet the goal of an Industrial Engineer: productivity in any type of industrial, to In this case, a small flour tortilla company, where the synoptic diagrams, analytical diagram, bimanual and route diagram are developed in the workplace selected by us.
An in-depth analysis of the promising revolution in international business, makes possible by the application of advanced information technology the advances to date in systems and processes are clearly articulated, as the potential of these technologies changes the way of Operating a job clearly explains that change and what it means to you to be productive and that of your company.
SYSTEMATIC ANALYSIS OF PRODUCTION I
Laboratory of Work Methods Engineering
Theory:
Productivity
Currently every organization conducts studies and applications to increase its productivity, however the terms productivity and production are often confused.
Productivity is the quantitative relationship between what we produce and the resources we use and Production refers to the activity of producing goods and / or services.
Other very common terms are:
Efficiency, which is the ratio between the actual production obtained and the expected standard production. As an example you have an operator who performs a production of 7 pieces per hour while you have an operator who performs a production of 7 pieces per hour while the standard rate is 10 pieces per hour. Therefore its efficiency is 7/10 = 0.7 or 70%. And effectiveness is the degree to which objectives are achieved.
According to our discipline it is essential to identify the factors that affect productivity, some of these are:
Methods and Equipment: One way to improve productivity is to make a constructive change in the methods, procedures, or equipment with which the results are carried out. Some examples are:
- Automation of manual processes Installation of ventilation systems Decrease in product handling Elimination of waiting times Provide preventive and corrective maintenance
USE OF RESOURCE CAPACITY. The precision with which the ability to do the job is matched by the amount of work to be done provides the second important opportunity to increase productivity, for example:
- Operate a facility and its machinery with two or three shifts and not just one shift Maintain only the stocks required to meet the service level objectives for customers Use the trucks themselves to collect merchandise or raw materials from suppliers instead of returning empty after your deliveries are installed Install shelves or pallets in warehouses to make the most of floor-ceiling space Maintain working condition in top condition
PERFORMANCE LEVELS. The ability to get and keep the best effort from all employees provides the third great opportunity to improve productivity. Among other aspects may be mentioned:
- Obtain the maximum benefit from the knowledge and experiences acquired by senior employees. Establish a spirit of cooperation and teamwork among employees. Motivate employees to adopt as their own organizational goals. Project and successfully implement a program. training for employees
Create incentive programs to decrease turnover rates.
In addition to these points, the human factor is considered the most important resource, since without it, any production process, organization or system in general could not function properly. Therefore, it is essential to consider knowing their productive efficiency, which can be determined by means of a measurable concept called “Labor Productivity”.
In term, it is a partial productivity in relation to the set of inputs to prepare a certain production of goods and services.
AW Klein and N. Grabinski in their work entitled Factorial Analysis, edited by Banco de México in 1981, on page 28, determine the concept in question from the following formula.
where:
PT = Labor Productivity
CFP = Physical quantity of the product
HHT = Man-hours worked
It is important to highlight that our study topic is Partial Productivity, but nevertheless we find what Total Productivity is, which is defined as the ratio between total production and the sum of all input factors. In addition to the relationship that determines productivity, there are others such as:
Productivity = Production obtained / input spent
Performance achieved / resources consumed
Effectiveness / efficiency
Production / Inputs
Achieved Results / Resources Employed
Productivity is not a measure of production or of the quantity that has been manufactured. It is a measure of how well resources have been combined and used to deliver the desired specific results.
Every organization tries to minimize its costs and at the same time increase its profits, this will be achieved by increasing its productivity. Reason why the Engineering of Methods represents a way to get to cover the pre-established objectives.
Initially, the method engineer is in charge of devising and preparing the job centers the product will be manufactured. Second, it will continue to improve each workplace to find a better way to do the job.
WORK STUDY
In any organizational system, people talk about work, so companies carry out studies that try to optimize their resources to obtain a good and / or service. For this reason, work represents the dynamics of the company, since it presents a fundamental factor to increase its productivity. So we will start by defining what work is.
During any process where man intervenes, it is about being the most efficient, it is for them that the Work Study presents us with several techniques to increase productivity.
WORK STUDY is understood, generically, certain techniques, and in particular the study of methods and the measurement of work, which are used to examine human work in all its contexts and which systematically lead to investigating all the factors that influence the efficiency and economy of the situation studied, in order to make improvements.
The work study is divided into two branches, which are the following:
Designing the workplace, tools, equipment, and environment to fit the operator is called ergonomics. Instead of dedicating a large space to the theoretical foundations of human physiology, capacities and limitations. It is also said to be the investigation of the physical and mental capacities of the human being and the application of the knowledge obtained in products, equipment and artificial environments. The application of ergonomics can lead to safer or easier to use products, such as vehicles or household appliances. Ergonomics can also lead to better procedures for performing certain tasks, from changing a diaper to welding a metal part.
Ergonomists or ergonomists are scientists specialized in the study of the interaction of people with objects with which they come into contact, particularly artificial objects. Their work provides information that helps other specialists, such as designers and engineers, to improve the usability of the products they develop. Ergonomists are involved in the manufacture of vehicles (cars, planes, or bicycles), household products (kitchen utensils, toys, computers, or furniture), clothing (footwear, sportswear, or pants), and many other products. For example, the driver's seat of a vehicle must be carefully designed to accommodate different user sizes.The instrument panel should be designed so that it does not confuse the driver with excessive or unclear information, which is neither too dim nor excessively bright at night, in addition to other features. Both physiologists and psychologists can contribute to the design.
Designing products to suit people's bodies and abilities is not new. Even prehistoric men shaped their tools and weapons to make them easier to use. In the 20th century the search for efficiency and the demands of serial manufacturing have stimulated research. Psychologists and physiologists have gained new insights into how our brains and bodies work. In 1940, the British psychologist Hywel Murrell united the Greek terms ergon (work) and nomia (knowledge) to baptize the new science. More recently, the term 'human factors engineering' has been widely used in place of the word 'ergonomics', as it makes it possible to distinguish between physiological, psychological and sociological human factors. Today, designers andIndustrial engineers rely on human factors research, such as experimental studies of anthropometric data (body measurements) and ease of use, to help make products easier to understand, safer to handle, and better suited to the human body.. The elderly, children and the disabled are special groups that can be subject to ergonomic analysis.
ANTHROPOMETRY
Anthropometry and Design
The primary guide is to design the workplace to fit most individuals in terms of the structural size of the human body. The science of measuring the human body is known as anthropometry, and it typically uses a variety of caliper-like devices to measure structural dimensions, such as height, forearm length, and others. However, in a practical sense, few ergonomists or engineers collect their own data, due to the amount that has already been collected and tabulated.
The type of anthropometric data that primarily interests the ergonomist can be divided into two categories:
- Structural anthropometry, which refers to the simple dimensions of the human being at rest, for example: weight, height, length, width, depth and circumference of the body structure.Functional anthropometry that studies composite measurements. of a human being in motion for example: stretching to achieve something, and the angular ranges of various joints.
There is variability for any dimension of the human body, both between members of a particular population and between members of different populations. In this regard, height is a good example, given that a quick basket to a group of people will reveal that even when height surveys a group of people it will reveal that a when the height of most people is between 1.60 and 1.70 m, some people are taller and others shorter.
Since the population exhibits such variability in body dimensions, the custom when reporting anthropometric data is to indicate the extent of the variability. Therefore, it has become common practice to specify anthropometric data in terms of statistical numbers called percentiles, which simply indicate the amount of the population that has body dimensions up to body size.
Anthropometric sources of variability are usually due to small genetic differences, however, there are others such as:
AGE. The change in body dimensions from birth to maturity increases occur consistently, despite some regularities. For height, as for most body lengths, total growth is obtained for all practical purposes at around age 20 for men and age 17 for women.
Likewise, it has been noted that the elderly “shrink”, but this evident change could be related to historical trends. It may also be due to a slight degeneration of the joints in senescence.
SEX. With increased attention to sexual equality in the workplace, establishing differences in bodily dimensions between the sexes becomes an important aspect of the ergonomist's task. In this regard, men are generally larger than women for most bodily dimensions, and the extent of this difference varies from dimension to dimension.
CULTURE: The importance of national and cultural differences in anthropometry has long been estimated, but only recently has little effort been made to use adequate data in the production of a plant or machinery. Having a poor anthropometric design not only leads to poor execution by the executor, but also results in a market loss.
The variability of anthropometric dimensions due to national and cultural differences may not be as dramatic as it would be between pygmies from the tribes of Central Africa (the average height of man is 1.44 m) and those of the North African tribes. South Sudan (The average height of the man is 1.83 m). Therefore, it is important to determine which country (in case of foreign origin) some machinery is destined, since its adaptability must be analyzed with the executors to carry out some task with them.
OCCUPATION: Differences in body size and proportions between each occupational group are common and well-known, for example, many of the body dimensions of a manual worker are, on average, larger than those of an academic. However, such differences may also be related to age, diet, exercise, and many factors, in addition to some degree of self-selection. Anthropometric variability in each occupation must be taken into account:
- To design environments to deal with in particular Before using anthropometric data obtained from members of one occupation to design the environment of another
HISTORICAL TRENDS: Many people have observed that the equipment used in previous years would be too small for effective use today. The suits of armor, the height of the doors and the length of the tombs indicate that the height of our ancestors was less than what exists today. This has suggested that the average height of the population increases over time, perhaps due to a better diet and living conditions. Unfortunately, there is no detailed evidence to support or refute this position.
Design for ends
Designing for most individuals is an approach that involves the use of one of three specific design principles, as determined by the type of design problem. Design for extremes implies that a characteristic is a limiting factor in determining the maximum and minimum value of a population variable that will be adjusted. For example, gaps, such as a door or the entrance to a storage tank, should be designed the maximum case, that is, for the height or shoulder width corresponding to the 95th percentile. In this way, 95% of men and almost all women will be able to pass through the clearing. It is obvious that for doors, space is no problem and can be designed to fit even taller individuals.
Design to be adjustable
Designing to be adjustable is generally used for equipment or facilities that must fit a wide variety of individuals. Chairs, tables, desks, vehicle seats, a gear stick and tool holders are devices that fit a population of workers between the 5th percentile of women and the 95th percentile of men. Designing to fit is obviously the most convenient method of design, but there is a catch to the cost of implantation.
Design for the average
Design for the average is the least expensive but least preferred approach. Although there is not an individual with all the average dimensions, there are certain situations where it would be impractical or too expensive to include adjustment possibilities for all the characteristics. The industrial designer must also consider the legal part of the job design.
BIOMECHANICS
Biomechanics studies the osteoarticular and muscular system as mechanical structures subjected to movements and forces. This includes the analysis of the human way of walking and the investigation of the deforming forces suffered by the body in an accident. Biomechanics also studies other body systems and organs, such as the behavior of blood as a fluid in motion, the mechanics of respiration, or the exchange of energy in the human body.
The applications of biomechanics therefore range from the design of seat belts for automobiles to the design and use of extracorporeal circulation machines (used during cardiac surgery to replace heart and lung functions). A major development was the steel lung, the first artificial respiration device that saved the lives of some polio sufferers. Biomechanics is involved in the development of implants and artificial organs. Myoelectric prostheses have been developed for the limbs of amputees. They are powered by small electric motors stimulated by electronic systems that collect muscle signals (not all patients are able to use them properly).One of the most important advances in medicine in the last decades is joint prostheses, which make it possible to replace destroyed joints with different rheumatic diseases, radically improving the quality of life of patients; Those of the hip and knee, and somewhat less those of the shoulder, have obtained great clinical success. The development of artificial implants to treat fractures has revolutionized the world of trauma: its enormous variety includes screws, needles, screwed plates, intramedullary nails and external fixation systems; all require a detailed biomechanical study prior to testing and clinical application. Artificial hearts are also being developed; since 1982 many patients have been successfully treated with such devices.that allow to replace destroyed joints by different rheumatic diseases, radically improving the quality of life of patients; Those of the hip and knee, and somewhat less those of the shoulder, have obtained great clinical success. The development of artificial implants to treat fractures has revolutionized the world of trauma: its enormous variety includes screws, needles, screwed plates, intramedullary nails and external fixation systems; all require a detailed biomechanical study prior to testing and clinical application. Artificial hearts are also being developed; since 1982 many patients have been successfully treated with such devices.that allow to replace joints destroyed by different rheumatic diseases, radically improving the quality of life of patients; Those of the hip and knee, and somewhat less those of the shoulder, have obtained great clinical success. The development of artificial implants to treat fractures has revolutionized the world of trauma: its enormous variety includes screws, needles, screwed plates, intramedullary nails and external fixation systems; all require a detailed biomechanical study prior to testing and clinical application. Artificial hearts are also being developed; since 1982 many patients have been successfully treated with such devices.Those of the hip and knee, and somewhat less those of the shoulder, have obtained great clinical success. The development of artificial implants to treat fractures has revolutionized the world of trauma: its enormous variety includes screws, needles, screwed plates, intramedullary nails and external fixation systems; all require a detailed biomechanical study prior to testing and clinical application. Artificial hearts are also being developed; since 1982 many patients have been successfully treated with such devices.Those of the hip and knee, and somewhat less those of the shoulder, have obtained great clinical success. The development of artificial implants to treat fractures has revolutionized the world of trauma: its enormous variety includes screws, needles, screwed plates, intramedullary nails and external fixation systems; all require a detailed biomechanical study prior to testing and clinical application. Artificial hearts are also being developed; since 1982 many patients have been successfully treated with such devices.all require a detailed biomechanical study prior to testing and clinical application. Artificial hearts are also being developed; since 1982 many patients have been successfully treated with such devices.all require a detailed biomechanical study prior to testing and clinical application. Artificial hearts are also being developed; since 1982 many patients have been successfully treated with such devices.
PRACTICE 8: CONDITIONS AND WORKING ENVIRONMENT
Working conditions play a primary role in the performance of the activities that the worker performs, because they influence both psychologically and physically, and can jeopardize their integrity.
When the working conditions are not adequate or the corresponding protection required in the activity is not available, the following consequences can be generated:
- Increase in fatigue Increase in work accidents Increase in occupational diseases Decrease in performance Increase in nervous tension Decrease in Production Dissatisfaction and disinterest in work, etc.
These points undoubtedly lead to a decrease in productivity, so it is essential to determine the optimal conditions to perform a specific job. An important point in raising management's awareness of the impact of not having suitable working conditions, since costs increase and work risks increase.
The decrease in productivity, the increase in defective parts and manufacturing waste, among other causes, are attributable to fatigue. This can be defined as that effect of work on the mind and body of the individual that tends to decrease the quantity or quality of her fatigue is just one of the many forces that can reduce the productive capacity.
Working conditions are a fundamental factor in human performance, so it is necessary that man does not work beyond the maximum limits of his resistance and in inadequate environmental conditions.
The individual faces problems such as: temperature, humidity, noise and vibrations, lighting and acceleration and imbalance forces, etc. Each of the most common factors that affect the individual's performance is explained below.
TEMPERATURE: It influences the well-being, comfort, performance and safety of workers, excessive heat produces fatigue, requiring more recovery or rest time than if it were a normal temperature. Its effects vary according to the humidity of the environment.
The fight against excessive temperature includes the orientation of the building or the industrial warehouse, its size, the density of machines and the projection of workshops or industrial warehouses with greater ventilation, plus the use of suits adapted to heat and personal protection means to asbestos base, aluminum, in various forms. The cold also hurts the worker since the low temperatures make him lose agility, sensitivity and precision in the hands.
In general, an environment must be created whose conditions correspond to a comfort zone: 18ºC is an optimal temperature.
According to Woodson and Conover in their ergonomics guide:
- At 10ºC, physical limb seizure appears. At 18ºC, they are optimal. At 24ºC, physical fatigue appears. At 30ºC, agility and mental speed are lost, responses slow down and errors appear. At 50ºC, they are tolerable for one hour with the previous limitation., but it is far above the possibility of physical or mental activity.
The optimum internal temperature of 18ºC should be combined with the external temperature, which gives the following comfort zones as recommended:
Summer: 18 to 24ºC
Winter: 17 to 22ºC
If the type of activity is also taken into account, the most recommended temperatures for work are:
- Sedentary professionals: 17 to 20ºC Light manual work: 15 to 18ºC More powerful work: 12 to 15ºC
NOISE:
The highly mechanized operations, the acceleration of the pace of the machines, the density of the machinery in the workplace, and until recently, the lack of detailed knowledge about the nuisances and risks due to noise have caused Many factories workers have been exposed to noise levels that are currently considered excessive.
The first step to take to reduce noise is to measure it. A decibel unit has been standardized and an instrument has been built to record sounds in that unit. According to the definition of the Scientific Collection of sound and Hearing, sound is produced when a body moves from one side to another fast enough to send a wave through the medium in which it is vibrating, however, the sound As a sensation, it must be received by the ear and transmitted to the brain.
The decibel, whose abbreviation is dB, is defined as the smallest variation that the ear can discover in the sound level. Zero decibels is the threshold of hearing and 120 decibels of pain.
In itself there is no rigid definition of noise, but such a phenomenon causes in the human organism:
- Pathological effects Fatigue Confusion states, psychological effects That the worker does not perceive an imminent danger
Not all individuals have the same resistance to noise, some are hypersensitive to it. Experience indicates that any noise higher than 90 decibels is harmful.
ACOUSTICS is aimed at reducing noise and uniform distribution of sound energy. Part of the noise control at its source and its subsequent isolation.
It is more difficult to control differentiated, intermittent or different intensity noises than those that are constant, identical and too close.
The following table of recommended sound level can serve as a reference point for designing work areas.
| Ambient | DB |
| Recording room | 25 |
| Concert hall | 30 |
| Hospital | 35 |
| Conference hall | 40 |
| Classroom | 40 |
| Offices | Four. Five |
| Banks, warehouses | fifty |
| Restaurants | fifty |
| Factories | 50 - 80 |
It is worth mentioning standard 11 - 12 of the Ministry of Labor and Social Security, which shows us the following:
MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE EXPOSURE TIME PER WORKING DAY DEPENDING ON THE EQUIVALENT CONTINUOUS SOUND LEVEL
| Time (hours) | NSCE (dB) A |
| 8 | 90 |
| 4 | 93 |
| two | 96 |
| one | 99 |
| ½ | 102 |
| 1/4 | 205 |
PROCEDURES TO REDUCE NOISE:
Noise that cannot be prevented or greatly reduced at its point of origin by a suitable or muffled design will radiate into the air, either directly from the surface of the vibrating body or from the parts of the structure to which it is attached.
CLASSIFICATION OF NOISE TO PREVENT IT:
| Classification | Method to prevent it |
| Avoidable at its point of origin | Design changes - Cushioning |
| Difficult to avoid at the point of origin | |
| - Direct noise | Screen Protection, Absorption, Filtration |
| - Indirect noise | Suspension insulation |
Design changes to reduce are due to studies by manufacturers. Examples are: the wheels of railway cars, steel rims isolated from the rest of the rubber wheel, electric motors with special designs, etc.
The damping can be obtained with a suitable material that reduces vibrations, machines or the object that produces the noise. A layer of putty 2.5 cm or more thick, covered with a varnish material that prevents it from drying, greatly reduces rumbling noises and high-frequency hissing. Filter-like materials, although less effective than putty, are, however, on purpose to reduce noise in some cases.
Screen Protection: Obtained by building partition walls with materials that transmit sound poorly.
Absorption: Directly radiated noises, such as those produced in an office or in a factory, cannot be turned off with screens. They can be reduced by means of sound-absorbing materials. Filter-like materials have a high sound-absorbing power, and it happens to certain porous materials, for example, celotex.
Filtration: When a direct noise, containing defined notes, is transmitted through ducts through openings, it is possible to completely eliminate the inconvenient harmonics by means of an acoustic filter. An example is a car exhaust muffler or Maxim muffler. The current limitation for these applications is the lack of space.
Insulation `by suspension Forced vibrations can be remedied by suitable insulation, using an elastic suspension. Suspensions for springs, steels, rubber, cork and gelatin compound are used.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration of the Ministry of Labor has set the loudest decibel levels to which industrial workers can be exposed during an eight-hour shift without using protective devices. If the sound level is higher, the workday should be reduced in proportion, for example, workers exposed to 92 decibels should work only six hours. The United States Environmental Protection Office recommends a level below 85 decibels for the eight-hour day.
To get a better idea of what the magnitude of decibels is, the following table Nº2 is presented in an analogous way.
THE DECIBELIC SCALE:
| Scale | |
| 0
10 twenty 30 40 fifty 60 70 80 90 100 |
Hearing threshold
Normal breathing Leaves blown by the breeze Empty cinematograph Residential neighborhood at night They restore quiet Conversation between two people Heavy traffic Dust vacuum cleaner Water at the foot of Niagara Falls Subway train |
| 120
130 140 160 175 |
Propeller plane taking off
Machine gun close up Military jet on take off Streamlined tunnel Future space rockets |
This graph with sound intensity levels assigns its decibel intensity to various known noises. The almost absolute silence represented by zero decibels is only achieved in special rooms, without echo. Above 120 decibels, the sound is so intense that it sometimes tickles the ear, after 130 decibels this sensation turns into pain and can damage the ears.
ILLUMINATION
The deficiency in lighting is responsible for 10 to 15% of the total nervous energy expended on the job, and it is calculated that 80% of the information required to perform a job is acquired by sight. The muscles of the eye tire easily if they are forced to dilate and contract too often, as is the case when work has to be done with lighting produced by very powerful local lights. General lighting is convenient because it reduces eyestrain, mental irritation and insecurity in movements, on the other hand, contributes to making the environment in which it works more pleasant.
Adjustable covers should be installed on all windows where the sun is shining, in order to avoid excessive heat and glare. Artificial lighting intensity standards have been established for all types of work and these standards must be followed if maximum production is desired.
The concept of natural lighting brings back the theme of the location, construction and orientation of work premises. In lighting with sunlight the precepts are:
- That it is sufficient in relation to the surface of the premises That it does not cause glare or marked contrasts in the shadows, in order to avoid it it is customary to resort to the orientation of premises.
Vision is produced by the coordinated operation of two factors: physiological (sight) and natural or artificial radiant energy (light waves of such a length that they are perceptible to which the eye, in combination with the brain, transforms into vision).
Sunlight can be controlled by screens, bonuses, glass, etc.
Additionally, there are four fundamental and variable factors involved in the ability to see: object size, contrast, brightness, and exposure time.
Lighting is an important safety factor for the worker. Sufficient lighting increases maximum output and reduces inefficiency and the number of accidents.
Among these lighting defects are:
- Glare Reflection of intense brightness Shadows
Physically lighting is necessarily for the performance of work, its concept is based on:
- The needs of the task Contrast between the lighting required by the task and the work environment Avoid flashes to the light source and the work surface
Sociologically, ambient lighting creates impressions that stretch between tranquility and excitement. In this sense, the use of sunlight is desirable, not only from the economic point of view, but to facilitate greater personal efficiency. Irritability can be reached by staying a long time without seeing the light of day.
Lighting accidents happen mainly due to two basic errors:
- Directed light rays towards the observer, instead of directing them towards the object. Design the general interior lighting system without considering the subsequent arrangements: the whole body, like people, absorbs light rays.
The artificial light sources used in the industry are:
Filament lamp: only a part of the energy consumed is usable in the form of light. The need to subject the filament to a high temperature so that the light is clear, for a short duration of the lamp. Better light performance in a given direction is achieved by coating a portion of the lamp's inner surface with a shiny silver film that acts as a reflector.
Mercury Lamp: Light is produced by the action of current through arc-formed mercury vapor. Its luminous performance doubles that of filament lamps. The some types of greater luminosity the ignition is slow, to avoid this drawback it is added to the filament that acts in the phases of ignition delay.
Fluorescent lamp: Three times more efficient than the filament lamp consisting of a tube with low pressure mercury vapor through which the current flows, causing invisible radiation that activates the phosphorescent coating inside the tube, converting the energy into visible light. Radiations harmful to sight are filtered by the composition of the tube wall. Quick-ignition lamps are also built by suddenly raising the temperature of the interior.
Mainly there are two lighting units which are the following:
Lumen. Luminous flux unit: corresponds to the amount of luminous flux emitted by a luminous point whose intensity is that of a decimal spark plug in all directions, on one square meter of a sphere one meter in diameter.
Lux. Illumination unit or light effect. It is the illumination of a surface that receives a uniform flux of one lumen per square meter.
The table shows the DIN 5035 standard for interior lighting with artificial light. It includes six kinds of activities and a range of intensities for each, in order to choose according to the degree of reflection of the room to be illuminated:
| Activity class | Recommended lighting intensity E |
| a) Enclosure intended only for orientation stay | 60 Lux |
| b) Works in which the eye must perceive great details with high contrasts | 120 - 250 Lux |
| c) Activities that make it necessary to recognize details with reduced contrasts | 500 - 700 Lux |
| d) Precision work requiring very precise detail recognition with very low contrast | 1000 - 5100 Lux |
| e) Precision work requiring very precise detail recognition with about 7 very low contrasts | 2000 - 3000 Lux |
| f) Special cases in which the work to be carried out imposes high, unusual demands on the intensity of illumination: for example, illumination of a field of clinical operations. | 5000 Lux or more |
It should be considered that all surfaces (ceiling, floor, walls) reflect the light that hits them. Light and shiny surfaces have more reflective power, matt and dark ones reflect less. This must be taken into account, not only when choosing the intensity of lighting but also when studying the distribution of the lamps and the work plans. The aforementioned DIN standard corresponds to an average degree of reflection of 30%. In addition it is necessary to take into account the color.
Basically there are 3 light distributions, which are:
General lighting is the one that tries to distribute the lighting throughout the premises, without influencing the orientation and position of the workstations. The advantage is that the results are not altered, even if the positions are changed, the disadvantage is that the lighting must suit all positions.
The semi-localized lighting allows a level in the areas of common use and also serves each station.
Localized lighting has low levels of general lighting, which is a drawback, since common lighting by zones or groups of stations is required in work areas.
VENTILATION
"For a constant number of workers, the intensity of ventilation must be inversely proportional to the size of the premises"
Ventilation should not be confused with air circulation, the first replaces the emptied air with fresh air, while the second moves the air, but without renewing it. Ventilation of rooms on purpose:
Disperse the heat produced by machines and workers (the mechanical efficiency of the workers usually represents 20% of the energy used, while the remaining 80% is transformed into heat), therefore, ventilation in the premises should be intensified in that there is a concentration of machines and workers.
To reduce atmospheric pollution, it is easy to calculate the intensity of the ventilation required depending on the amount of substances that are dispersed in the air and the concentration limits that must be observed.
Maintain the feeling of freshness of the air.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
- ELWOOD, S. Buffa, “ Administration and technical direction of Production ”, Fourth Edition, Editorial: Limusa, México, DF, 1982, Pp 672GONZÁLEZ, Ruiz Lucinda, ESPRIU, Torres José, “ Theoretical-Practical Instruction of Systematic Analysis of the Production I ” Mexico DF, January 2001, Pp 60KRICK, Edward V.,“ Engineering of Methods ”, Headquarters: LIMUSA, Mexico DF, 1961, Pp 550NIEBEL, Benjamin, FREIVALDS Andris, “ Industrial Engineering: Methods, Standards and Work Design ” Tenth edition, Editorial: Alfaomega, México, DF, 2001, Pp 728International Labor Office, “ Introduction to the Study of Labor ”,Fourth edition, Editorial: Noriega-Limusa, México DF, 1998. Pp 522.
APPENDIX:
Human Act: They are those who come from the deliberate will of man, that is, those who carry out with knowledge and free will.
Work Adaptation: Horizontal expansion or diversification of work, to avoid repetitive tasks.
Grab: General movement of the hand when closing the fingers around a piece
Power Grip: Optimal cylindrical grip for the force that uses all the fingers and in which the thumb hardly overlaps with the index finger .
Expansion of the work: horizontal expansion or diversification of the Work, to avoid repetitive tasks.
Chronocyclographic: Photographic record of body movement that can be used to determine the speed and direction of movement patterns.
Decimal Hour Stopwatch: Stopwatch used for the measurement of work, whose dial is graduated in ten thousandths (0.0001) of hour
Decimal minute stopwatch: Stopwatch used for measuring work, the dial of which is graduated in hundredths (0.01) of a minute.
Course: A diagram in which the sequence is actually represented by special symbols that help to make a mental image of a process in order to examine and refine it.
dB: Measurement of the sound pressure level; their common use is to assess workers' exposure to noise.
Decibel: Unit of sound intensity.
Delay: Any interruption of the work routine that does not occur in the typical work cycle.
Avoidable delay: Interruption of productive work due entirely to the operator and that does not occur in the normal work cycle.
Inevitable Delay: Interruption of the continuity of an operation that leaves the operator's control.
Performance: Ratio of actual operator production to standard production.
Analytical diagram: Diagram showing the trajectory of a product or procedure indicating all the facts subject to examination by means of the corresponding symbol
Analytical diagram of the Equipment or Machinery: Diagram that records how machines, tools, etc. are used.
Material analytical diagram: diagram that records how material is handled or treated
Analytical diagram of the operator: diagram that records what the person who works does
Synoptic Diagram: Diagram that presents an overview of how only the main operations and inspections take place.
Bimanual Diagram: A course showing the activity of the operator's hands (or extremities) indicating the relationship between them.
Thread Diagram: Plane or scale model in which the path of workers, materials or equipment is followed and measured with a thread during a given sequence of events.
Route Diagram : Diagram or model, more or less to scale, showing the place where certain activities are carried out and the path followed by workers, materials or equipment in order to carry them out. Sometimes called <
Dignity of Human Work: The usefulness or value of the product of human work should not be a means only for its objective reality, that is, for how much or little it is worth in itself: it must also be considered that, behind that product, it is a human person - with all his dignity - who has done it.
Movement economics: set of principles, which, when applied to working methods, facilitate their execution.
Standard: Type, uniform or very generalized pattern of a thing: ~ life, ~ manufacturing. PL.: standards.
Study of Work: Generically, a set of techniques, and in particular the study of methods and measurement of work, which are used to examine human work in all its contexts and which systematically lead to investigating all the factors that influence efficiency and economy. of the situation studied, in order to make improvements.
Study of Methods: Registration and systematic critical examination of the existing and projected ways of carrying out a job, as a means of devising and applying simpler and more effective methods and reducing costs.
Study of Micro-movements: Critical examination of a symogram, after study, image by image, of the film of an operation.
Time study: Work measurement technique used to record the work times and rhythms corresponding to the elements of a defined task, carry out under certain conditions, and to analyze the data in order to find out the time required to carry out the task according to a pre-established performance standard.
Work Factor: Index of the time required to the basic time, as established by the work-time factor system of synthetic basic movements.
Human Factor: Axioms and postulates regarding physical, mental and emotional restrictions that affect the performance of operators.
Fatigue: Decreased work capacity
Work Physiology: Specification of the physiological and psychological factors characteristic of a work environment.
Body flexion: Joint movement in which the angle is closed.
Luminous flux. Total light produced by a source, or amount of light incident on a surface expressed in lumens.
Absolute Frequency: It is the total number of elements within a class interval, denoted by f (x i)
Relative Frequency: It is the absolute frequency of that class interval between the total number of elements in the experiment is denoted by f cap (x i)
Accumulated Frequency: It is the absolute frequency of that class interval plus the accumulated frequency up to the previous class interval, and is denoted by f tilde (x i)
Man-hour: One man's work in one hour
Machine-Hour: Operation of a machine or part of the installation for one hour.
Industrial Engineering: The AIIEE defines it as the design, improvement and installation of systems made up of men, materials and equipment, and which takes specialized knowledge and skills from the physical, mathematical and social sciences together with the principles and methods of analysis and design of the Engineering, to specify, predict and evaluate the results of these systems
Work Measurement: application of techniques to determine the time that a qualified worker spends in carrying out a defined task, performing it according to a pre-established execution standard.
Measures of central tendency: A measure of central tendency indicates the average values of an experiment. There are different measures of central tendency such as: Arithmetic Mean, Median, and Fashion.
Lie: it is a word or sign by which it is implied something different from what is thought, with the intention of deceiving.
Fear: It is a hesitation of the mind before a present or future evil that threatens us, and that influences the will of the one who acts
Gossip: It consists of criticizing and revealing without just reason the defects or hidden sins of others, within the company, or employment relationship.
Observation: Collecting and recording the time required to run an item, or reading the clock
Hate: it consists in desiring evil to others or because he is our enemy, or because he is unfriendly to us, it is a factor of low productivity.
Operation: Intentional change of a part to its desired shape, size and characteristic.
International Labor Organization (ILO): Specialized agency of the United Nations (UN), whose main objectives are to improve working conditions, promote productive jobs and the necessary social development, and improve the standard of living of people in all the world.
Production:
Productivity:
Lavishness: It is the vice that leads to abuse in the disposition of money, spending it inconsiderately and excessively, this is a cause of low productivity.
Theft: Consists of seizing something else, against the owner's reasonable will, is cause of loss of productivity.
Systematic: that follows or conforms to a system
Interrogation Technique: Means of carrying out the Critical examination, successively submitting each activity to a systematic and progressive series of questions.
Unproductive Time: The fraction of time elapsed, not counting the scoring time, that is dedicated to some activity outside the specified parts of the task.
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