Improving the management of members' job performance and in particular the training and development of job skills is a challenge for modern organizations. In correspondence with the above, the present work aims to carry out a theoretical analysis in relation to the definition of labor competencies and performance management, by means of which the main models of management by competence, the different procedures and methods for design competency-based curricula.
Introduction
The world scenario at the beginning of the 21st century has, among its fundamental features: the globalization of the world economy, the impetuous development of technologies, especially those of information and communications, and derived from these, the speed with which the multinationals spread throughout the world technological changes and new concepts in products and services, the predominance of knowledge as the basis for the success of organizations; as well as a marked tendency to promote management as an alternative to guarantee their progress towards excellence.
The level of transformations is such that advanced management systems are inclined to enhance norms, values, results, participation, synergy, the role of facilitator, competencies, organization in processes, feedback and self-management of performance, among other features, which implies, a broad and deep training process that prepares human resources to perform in new conditions, with the knowledge, skills and attitudes that organizations of a new type demand.
In correspondence with the above, this work addresses the definition of job competencies and job performance management, for which, through a bibliographic review, the main models of management by competence, the different procedures for designing curricula based on competences, as well as the different methods used to design a curriculum.
Development
The advance and evolution of society has given rise to the era of knowledge, which is essentially sustained by human capital in organizations. Particularly important in this context are the competencies of the members of the organization when constituting the basic components of human capital.
In the current specialized literature, the proposed definitions of the term competencies remain multiple.
According to McClelland, (1973) competencies are linked to a way of evaluating what "really causes superior performance at work" and not "to the evaluation of factors that reliably describe all the characteristics of a person, in the hope that some of them are associated with job performance. ”
While for Bunk GP (1994), professional who has the knowledge, skills and abilities necessary to practice a profession, can solve professional problems autonomously and flexibly, and is trained to collaborate in their professional environment, as well as in the organization of work.
On the other hand, for Fernández González (2006), competencies are intelligent technical knowledge, which involves the exercise of discernment, intelligent action in unstructured situations that require creativity and the search for alternatives to decision-making.
Complex combination of attributes (knowledge, attitudes, values, abilities) and tasks to be performed in certain situations. Take into account the context and culture of the workplace. It allows ethics and values to be incorporated as elements of competent performance.
Finally, the Cuban Standard 3000: 2007 defines competencies as the synergistic set of knowledge, skills, experiences, feelings, attitudes, motivations, personal characteristics and values, based on demonstrated suitability, associated with superior performance of the worker and the organization., in correspondence with the technical, productive and service requirements. It is an essential requirement that these competencies are observable, measurable and that they contribute to the achievement of the organization's objectives.
The conceptual analysis carried out allowed concluding that competence is an effective capacity to successfully carry out a fully identified work activity, as well as satisfactory performances in real work situations, which are formed from the development of reflective scientific-technical thinking, of the possibility of building referential frameworks of action applicable to decision-making required by professional contexts, of developing and assuming attitudes, skills and values compatible with the decisions that must be made and with the processes on which one must act responsibly.
Job competence is not a probability of success in performing a job; It is a real and proven ability, not only taking into account the cognitive aspect, but also the emotional one, they can be observed in a daily work situation.
It is also necessary to consider the typologies identified in the literature in the context of the competition. Competences can be classified into generic and specific. The former refer to a set or group of activities and the latter to specific functions or tasks. Another classification is that carried out by Cardona and Chinchilla (1999), who refer to two types of competences: technical or job and directive or generic.
The former refer to those distinctive attributes or traits that a worker requires in a given position. These include specific knowledge, skills, or attitudes necessary to perform a specific task.
The second are those observable and habitual behaviors that enable the success of a person in his managerial role. Although these are considered generic, according to the authors, and although companies may emphasize more in one than in the other, it is possible to study them together from the analysis of the managerial function.
The managerial or generic competences are classified in turn into strategic and intra-strategic competences. This other classification is made by the authors, based on the anthropological business model proposed by Pérez López (1998), according to him, it consists of developing the capacities of the employees and uniting them with the mission of the management function which is to design strategies that produce economic value for the company.
Strategic management competencies are necessary to obtain good economic results and among these the authors cite: vision, problem solving, resource management, customer orientation and the network of effective relationships. The intra-strategic managerial competences are those necessary to develop employees and increase their commitment and trust with the company, which according to the aforementioned model, is essentially about executive capacity and leadership capacity, among which are mentioned, communication, empathy, delegation, "coaching" and teamwork.
To the two previous types of competences, Cardona and Chinchilla (1999) add managerial competences, of a business nature, which are called personal efficacy. These, presented below, include those habits that facilitate an effective relationship between the person and her environment.
- Pro-activity: initiative and personal autonomy. Self-government: personal management of time, stress, risk, discipline, concentration and self-control. Personal development: self-criticism, self-knowledge, personal change.
These competencies measure the capacity for self-direction, which is essential to direct others, thus enhancing strategic and intra-strategic competences.
Another classification, frequently used, is that of Menguzzatto and Renau (1995), who group them according to knowledge, skills and attitudes, that is, knowing, knowing how to do and knowing how to be. This classification is of interest for the purposes of the present investigation, due to its ease of understanding in the members of the organization, which makes it viable, as it is more consistent with the training strategies that contribute to its development, having a higher degree precision and be more compatible with other classifications.
As for the identification of competences, authors such as Thornton and Byham (1982) and Levy-Leboyer (1997) relate a set of them which are grouped according to different criteria.
Labor competence and even more so, competence management, has become a frame of reference for personnel administration and development in modern organizations, in which the process of adapting and anticipating changes in the environment is presented as a determining factor and a condition that guides the growth and development of these organizations in order to achieve success.
Competency management is born from organizational psychology, immersed in theories of motivation, seeking to explain successful job performance; now it must be assumed in the necessary interdisciplinarity of human resource management, therefore the complexity of its object cannot be avoided: the competences of people in their interaction with jobs, the work environment and organizational culture, where the Human psychology and its epistemology or theory of knowledge occupy an important place. Management by competencies arises with the bias of the positivist paradigm and with the imprint of pragmatism, taking a boom in advanced and successful business practice from 1990.
According to the Cuban standard 3000: 2007 for management by competencies with which this research is identified, it is defined as a coordinated activity to direct and control an organization with an approach based on work skills and the learning capacity of workers. Its objective is a quality organization and the disposition of the integrated group to achieve the objectives of the organization, which will allow its human resources to become a central skill and whose development will provide a competitive advantage for the company..
Management by Competence constitutes an important element for the proper functioning and survival of the company, since it provides innumerable advantages, which condition the correct performance of human resources from the administration of their competences by trained managers. Within them they can be highlighted according to (Cabezas, 2006):
- The possibility of defining professional profiles that will favor productivity. The development of teams that possess the necessary skills for their specific area of work. The identification of weak points, allowing improvement interventions that guarantee results. Management by Competition is based on measurable, quantifiable objectives and with the possibility of direct observation. Increased productivity and optimization of results. The awareness of the teams so that they assume the co-responsibility of their self-development. Taking a win-win process, from the moment when everyone's expectations are met. The alignment of the human contribution to the strategic needs of the businesses, the efficient administration of the intellectual assets focused on the individuals.The urgent replacement of job descriptions as the axis of human resource management. Performance evaluation. Fair compensation based on the contribution to value added. Elimination of the costly and unproductive practice of traditional training.
Three types of competency management models are recognized in the consulted bibliography: functionalist, behavioral and constructivist, sharing the criteria of Quesada (2006).
Behavioral model: Oriented to the selection of the "fittest", and bearer of difficulties in identifying the standards and technical requirements. It is based on personal aspects of job performance that are possible to measure. Although it contains elements of collective work, the worker is incited to individual improvement. In this model, "competence" basically describes what a worker "can" do and not "what he does". It focuses on identifying the person's capabilities that lead to superior performance in the organization.
Generally it is applied to the managerial levels and it is subscribed to the capacities that make it stand out under non-predefined circumstances.
Functionalist model: Based essentially on the measurement of results. It starts from the main objective and continues with the disaggregation of levels until the units of competence and their elements are identified. The fundamental characteristic of this analysis is that it describes products, not processes. With this method, the worker obtains recognition of his competences in relation to obtaining and achieving the main objective. The functional approach refers to specific and predefined performances that the person must demonstrate, derived from an analysis of the functions that make up the production or service process. This model is generally used at the operational level, and is limited to technical aspects.
Constructivist model: It is the method with the highest holistic burden, with parameters of social inclusion and comprehensive training, human dimension of the activity and social context of work. It is assumed that the full participation of individuals in the discussion and understanding of problems is crucial for the identification of "dysfunctions" in the company. It is from this general discussion and exchange that the norm or standard begins to be generated. Competencies emerge in the problem solving process.
In the process of design, implementation and implementation of a competency management system, it is necessary to consider the following as basic elements: The dimensions, approaches and methodologies for its operationalization.
Regarding the dimensions, CINTERFOR (2005) defines the following:
- Identification of competences: It is the process that is followed to establish, from a work activity, the necessary competences to carry out an activity with excellence. Identification coverage can range from the job to a broader concept of occupational area or scope of work. Competency standardization: Once the competencies are identified, their description can be very useful to clarify transactions between employers, workers and educational institutions. Often when standardized systems are organized, a standardization procedure linked to a future institution is developed; thus, the competence identified and described with a common procedure, becomes a norm, a valid reference for educational institutions,workers and employers. This procedure, created and formalized institutionally, normalizes the competences and turns them into a standard at a specific level (company, sector, country). Competency-based training: Once the description of the competence and its normalization have been arranged; The development of job training curricula will be much more efficient if you consider an orientation towards the standard. This means that training aimed at generating competence with clear references in existing standards will have much more efficiency and impact than that unrelated to needs. Competency Certification: This refers to formal recognition of an individual's demonstrated competence (therefore evaluated) to perform a standard work activity.The issuance of a certificate implies the prior completion of a competency assessment process. The certificate is a standardized system, it is not a diploma that accredits studies completed; it is a proof of proven competence; it is obviously based on the defined standard.
Vargas (2005) states that for the identification, definition and construction of competencies, mainly with a view to training processes, occupational studies or analyzes are carried out by task groups or work committees, ideally made up of people from of four different aspects: workers, employers, technicians in the specialty and one or more methodologists specialized in competencies.
There are different procedures for designing competency-based curricula. Among the best known and used are; occupational analysis, which includes the DACUM / AMOD / SCID family and functional analysis.
These methods have had extensive conceptual development and practical experiences. A quick way to identify them is to distinguish the object of analysis from each of them:
- Occupational analysis: The job and the task. The DACUM, AMOD, SCID analysis: The job and the task to define the training curriculum. Functional analysis: The productive function, with an emphasis on competency certification.
According to Agudelo (1993), by Occupational Analysis, the «identification process is understood through observation, interview and study, of the activities and requirements of the worker and the technical and environmental factors of the occupation. It includes the identification of the tasks of the occupation and the skills, knowledge, aptitudes and responsibilities that are required of the worker for the satisfactory execution of the occupation, which allow it to be distinguished from all the others ».
Occupational Analysis is used for the following purposes:
- Job Description: includes information that identifies the purposes of the job, as well as a summary of activities and responsibilities. Job evaluation and classification: refers to the general processes of job placement in terms of value with respect to the organization and in terms of their relative importance among them, particularly in order to establish salary quotas and administrative hierarchies. Evaluation of job performance: includes systematic evaluation to determine the relative efficiency and effectiveness of individuals. The information is used to make decisions about salary determination, promotions and transfers. It is also a formal way to provide feedback to employees. Training design: includes the identification of needs,knowledge and attitudes necessary for successful performance in a given job and translate that information into systematized instructions and learning opportunities.Work Design: includes the organization of work activities and tasks in order to facilitate the efficient performance of services and production Property Employment Practices: Recently, occupational analysis has been used to help determine the fairness and legality of employment practices. Historically, the terms "job analysis", "employment analysis" and "occupational analysis" have been used interchangeably and have been discussed within the administration and training literature.
Functional analysis according to Mertens (1996) has been embraced by the new theory of social systems as its methodological and technical foundation. In that theory, functional analysis does not refer to the "system" itself, in the sense of a mass, or a state, that must be preserved or of an effect that must be produced, but is to analyze and understand the relationship between system and environment, that is, the difference between the two.
From this perspective, the objectives and functions of the company should not be formulated from its organization as a closed system, but in terms of its relationship with the environment. Consequently, the function of each worker in the organization must be understood not only in relation to the environment of the company, but also constitutes subsystems within the company system, where each function is the environment of another.
The functional analysis starts from what exists as a contingent, as probability, and relates it to points of view of the problem, which in this case is a certain result expected from the company. Try to make it understandable and intelligible that the problem can be solved this way, or in another way. The relationship between a problem and the desired result and its solution is not understood by itself; It also serves as a guide to inquire about other possibilities, functional equivalences.
The functional method is a comparative method; in terms of competencies, it analyzes the relationships that exist in companies between results and skills, knowledge and skills of workers, comparing one with the other.
The final results of this analysis are shown reflected in a functional map or function tree.
In this direction, CONOCER (1998) states that the basis of the functional analysis is the identification, through the breakdown or disaggregation, and the logical ordering of the functions that are carried out in a company or a representative set of them according to the level in which analysis is being developed.
Functional analysis applies from the general to the particular. It begins with the definition of the key purpose of the organization and ends when it is in simple productive functions - elements of competence - that can be carried out by a worker.
Functional analysis should identify delimited (discrete) functions, separating them from the specific work context. It is about including functions whose beginning and end are fully identifiable. It is not about describing the tasks confined to a job; rather, to establish the functions developed in the context of the occupational field in which they are carried out. This facilitates the transferability of said functions to other work contexts and prevents them from being reduced to a specific position.
Normally, the sub-functions that appear in the fourth level of disaggregation already include job achievements that a worker is capable of obtaining; At this point, which can also occur at the fifth level of disaggregation, one is already talking about “achievements” or “elements of competition”.
In this way, the sub-functions that have been identified at that level can already be called elements of competence and the immediately previous level will be the unit of competence.
Other methods used to design a curriculum are DACUM (Developing A Curriculum), SCID (Systematic Development of Instructional Curriculum) and AMOD (A MODEL). Regarding the way to proceed for its application, the use of different techniques is recommended, but especially the development of workshops.
Conclusions
The development of labor competencies has evolved in correspondence with the approaches that support it. The most modern conceptions are oriented to training, participation and flexibility in correspondence with the characteristics of the organizations.
Although in the theory of competencies, a set of theoretical conceptions, models and techniques have been developed, including including them as conceptual support of human capital management systems, their inclusion in performance management systems is not explicitly reflected from an integral conception. However, the results of the performance management of workers and managers is indisputably linked to their knowledge, skills and attitudes that are required to achieve the objectives.
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