Study of individuals and their perceptions, the impact of choice when faced with dilemmas
This article will detail in a timely manner and specified topics of interest, which can be focused on a personal, group or organization level. The antecedents regarding them as well as the development will be addressed, the classification of psychologists, the characteristics of scientific knowledge will also be known.
You will be able to know the four great modern currents of psychology, such as psychoanalysis, behaviorism, humanistic psychology and cognitive psychology; as well as the most relevant exponents of each of them.
In psychology there are different methods, which will be addressed and detailed in this article. You will also be able to know the fields of application of psychology as well as your participation in each of them.
The second important part of this article is decision-making, knowing its definition, the premises on decisions, reflections that we must take into account, in the same way the aspects that make decision-making difficult. What tools allow to make the ideal choice in decision making. Knowing in a timely manner the steps for decision making.
As an integral part of this article, the role that decision-making plays in the organization will be known, knowing the consolidated decision-making process; complemented by an outline that exemplifies the eight-step process for decision making in the organization. As well as other important data, they are involved in decision making in an organization.
Keywords
Psychology, decision making, decision making process, decision environments
Introduction
Psychology and decision-making are topics of utmost importance and interest, both personally and at the organizational level, since day by day we are involved in various events, which require us to choose a way of conducting ourselves, sometimes the alternatives are diverse, in others there are only two options.
Psychology is that part where you can make a study of the way of being of a person, what is their reaction to different circumstances, hence a psychological profile can be made. This profile allows you to meet a person and is applied in the field of organizations, it allows us to know how the member you are contemplating will behave to fill a vacancy.
Decision making is a process that occurs day by day, since we are exposed to situations where a decision is required, in other words to be a choice regarding a range of alternatives.
Background
From its birth, psychology was concerned with explaining the internal processes (memory, perception, attention, recognition, consciousness, intelligence, etc.) that have to do with knowledge, that is, since psychology emerged, one of its aspects was cognitive. (Alvarez Diaz de Leon, Molina Aviles, Monroy Nasr, & Bernal Alvarez, 2013)
At a basic level, psychology is a branch of knowledge. But this explanation is too superficial. The fundamental interest of this discipline is people, individually or in groups. Psychology can be defined as the scientific study of human behavior and mental processes. This science seeks to explain what we do, why we do it and how we do it. (Cash, 2011)
One of the most exciting aspects of psychology is that it studies a subject with which we all have contact: people. It is very difficult to say the same about chemistry or astronomy.
Perhaps that is why the importance and relevance of psychology, highlighting its immersion in various fields and accessible to many, therefore it is convenient to do a study of what it implies.
Another important aspect that is involved is decision making, and what role it plays along with psychology, that is why it is convenient to do an analysis, because decision making has its origins from ancient times
Development
Metatheories as an organizational framework (Cash, 2011)
When a psychologist wants to investigate a behavior or mental process that has piqued his interest, he usually begins to work based on one of the following theories:
- Biological: It focuses on the biological foundations of behavior and on the effects of evolution and genetics. Its premise is that physiology and anatomy allow to explain mental behavior and processes. Psychoanalytic: Emphasizes the relationship between unconscious mental processes and development during the first years of life, on the one hand, and the immature impulses and demands of the reality in which we live. Behavioral: Focuses on the influence of previous learning experiences on behavior. Behaviorists dismiss mental processes as virtually impossible to observe and objectively quantify. Cognitive: Focuses on mental information processing, including functions such as reasoning, problem solving, and memory. Cognitive psychologists are primarily interested in the mental schemas and thoughts that guide and generate behavior. Humanistic and existential: It highlights the uniqueness of each individual, and both their ability to make decisions and their responsibility to do so. Sociocultural: His primary interest is the social and cultural factors that influence our behavior. Feminist: Her main interest is the political, economic and social rights of women, and the influence of these forces on the behavior of both men and women. Postmodernist: It calls into question the essence of scientific psychology, challenging its approach to truth and its focus on the individual.
Biopsychosocial model
The basic idea of this model is that behavior and mental processes are the product of biological, psychological and social factors, and of their interaction. Any explanation of behavior and mental processes that does not take these three factors into account is incomplete. (Cash, 2011)
Classification of psychologists
In his work (Cash, 2011) he describes that there are three main classes of psychologists:
- Experimental: They spend most of their time researching and usually work in academic institutions. Although experimental psychology covers a wide variety of topics, individual researchers often specialize in one. Practical: They apply psychological theories and research findings to everyday problems and situations. The field of work of practical psychologists is extremely broad; for example, business, government, education and sports, among others. Clinicians: Analyze, diagnose and treat psychological problems. All professional psychologists must have studied the Bachelor of Psychology.
Characteristics of scientific knowledge
Scientific knowledge can be considered from very different philosophical positions and its classifications respond to many factors, both internal and external to each discipline. To if the authors manifest it.
- Scientific knowledge is factual. Scientific knowledge transcends facts. Science is analytical. Scientific research is specialized. Scientific knowledge is clear and precise. Scientific knowledge is communicable. Scientific knowledge is verifiable. Scientific research is methodical. Scientific knowledge is systematic. Scientific knowledge is general. Scientific knowledge is legal. Science is explanatory. Scientific knowledge is predictive. Science is open. Science is useful.
The modern theoretical currents of Psychology
They document in their work (Alvarado Rios, Arriola Rodriguez, Garza de la Huerta, Gonzalez Villa, Gutierrez Barajas, & Miranda Sanchez, 2012) that it was in the 20th century when the current profiles of Psychology were defined as a science in the process of consolidation. There are four great theoretical approaches recognizable today:
- Psychoanalysis.- was developed by Breuer and Freud in Vienna in the late 19th century as they attempted to find a cure for hysteria, an emotional illness that was widespread in Victorian society among many women. Behaviorism.- Watson is the founder of the so-called behaviorism or behaviorism, which was based on an a posteriori conception of knowledge, on the empiricism of John Locke's tabula rasa, and on an epistemology of the science of the French Augusto Comte called positivism. Humanistic Psychology.- Humanistic Psychology emerged in the United States after the Second World War, which sought to claim the human condition against the authoritarianism of psychoanalysis and the mechanization of the human being in the "rat model" of behaviorism. Its main exponents are Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers and the heterodox psychoanalysts Erich Fromm and Victor Frankl.
Pyramid of needs and motivations according to Maslow (Alvarado Rios, Arriola Rodriguez, Garza de la Huerta, Gonzalez Villa, Gutierrez Barajas, & Miranda Sanchez, 2012, p. 52)
- Cognitive Psychology.- This way of approaching the problems of our discipline had a huge boom in the late fifties of the 20th century. are Jean Piaget, Lev. S. Vygotsky and Henri Wallon the most representative.
Methods in Psychology
They cite in their work (Alvarado Rios, Arriola Rodriguez, Garza de la Huerta, Gonzalez Villa, Gutierrez Barajas, & Miranda Sanchez, 2012), that similarly to the different disciplines of knowledge, Psychology has structured research systems that They make it possible to understand and explain the different phenomena included in your body of knowledge.
Scientific method. It is a systematic and controlled study that includes the following principles:
- Identification of the problem to be studied. Formulation and verification of various hypotheses. Data collection. Statistical analysis of the data and formulation of conclusions.
By following each of these principles, human behavior can be reliably predicted and explained; It is considered the method with the highest objectivity and validity.
Correlational method. It allows establishing relationships between separate factors; each of the factors is called a variable, since it can vary between the members of a group or it can be varied for the purposes of an experiment. The relationships between variables are expressed in terms of correlation; the correlations show the direction and magnitude of a relationship between variables, and can be negative or positive. Although the correlation allows predicting one variable based on the other and suggesting possible causes to obtain results, they do not allow conclusions to be drawn about cause and effect.
Experimental method. It is a controlled procedure in which an experimenter manipulates the independent variable to determine its effect on the dependent variable. It can be done in a laboratory or field situation, or make use of naturally occurring events; obviously there is greater control in laboratory experiments. It allows to establish cause and effect relationships, as well as enables the repetition of the experiment by another researcher, literally following each of the established situations.
Clinical Method (Genetic). Combination of individualized questions and observations, developed by Piaget, to study children's development. It has flexibility for the researcher to follow up interesting questions. The ability of perceptions about development depends on the expertise of the researcher; It is also difficult to repeat a job due to its personalized approach.
Psychology and its fields of application.
Psychology is one of the disciplines with the greatest diversity in terms of its professional performance options, enjoying today a great prestige and a high demand among the study options in the different universities of the country. We can find a psychologist practically in any institution where social relationships are managed and seek to improve or develop skills in people, so we can point out that they are in any context. (Alvarado Rios, Arriola Rodriguez, Garza de la Huerta, Gonzalez Villa, Gutierrez Barajas, & Miranda Sanchez, 2012)
Clinic
It is the area in which the work of a psychologist is most socially located. The functions it performs in this field are focused on the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of emotional and / or social conflicts that an individual may have.
Educational Field
It is an area in which the psychologist has had the greatest growth and recognition of his work in our country. His main interest is the application of psychological principles and techniques to address educational problems and needs.
Organizational field
Throughout the history of Psychology, this area of work has received different names and classifications: labor, work, production and consumption, among others.
Experimental
In practically all the areas of insertion a psychologist carries out specific investigations, so it is necessary to carry out precision and note that this field refers to the work carried out using experimental methodology.
Environmental
It is one of the insertion areas with fewer years in practice, but which has had considerable growth and development. Psychologists working in this field are interested in determining the effects of the environment on humans.
Social psychology
Regardless of whether any area of Psychology has an impact on people's social life, specifically this area is devoted to the study of the different phenomena that occur within social groups and institutions, establishing categories of analysis such as norms, power, roles, attitudes, culture, identity, etc.
Psychophysiology
The discovery of the close relationship between the nervous system and behavior has allowed the development and growth of this field of Psychology. Area dependent on continuous research, enables its permanent renewal, expansion and enrichment in terms of the knowledge it produces.
Decision making
The importance of this topic is very significant since on a daily basis and on many occasions continuously, we are making decisions, some are simple choices, in other cases they are difficult or complex for what it implies, in addition to other occasions it is necessary to reflect before making a choice. Due to this, the conclusion is reached: Decide = Choose
Definition of decision making
Decision-making is a systematic process for choosing the option that offers us the best chance of improving the efficiency and effectiveness of our organizations to create value for all its stakeholders. (Salazar Yamada, 2010)
Premises on decisions.
These are factors that intervene in decisions, conditions that change the sense of choice, which is why their analysis is important, below is a simple example illustrated by (Salazar Yamada, 2010).
-It can be simple: "Choose the clothes I will wear today"
-But the matter can be complicated:
"What if he calls me out today?
-And to top it off:
“Just what I would wear I didn't pick it up from the laundry”
Important reflections in decision making
These are considerations that are involved in decision-making and that are correctly exposed (Salazar Yamada, 2010).
- When we make a decision we always have to choose between a series of things that interest us. This implies that for each choice we must leave other things aside. The important thing is to see the consequences of the choice and choose what is best for us.
Aspects that hinder decision-making
The following sentences represent situations or aspects that make it more difficult for us to make a decision, which is why it is good to keep them in mind, these conditions are mentioned by (Salazar Yamada, 2010)
- The conflict between what I should do, what I want to do and what is convenient for me. Do things without thinking. Ignorance. Not knowing how to say NO customs and habits. Lack of time and place to think.
But these aspects are not the only ones since there are others that are encompassed and that are exemplified below for your knowledge.
Ideas that influence:
- Having fun, doing something exciting or wanting to be independent or wanting to show how good one is at something in particular
Moods:
- Being very excited or feeling average, getting depressed or angry, feeling helpless or impulsive or thinking that everything is difficult to solve
Social pressures:
- Do what others do to not be isolated or Show aggressiveness to obtain respect or influences from the mass media
Tools for decision-making
Below are four important decision-making tools, which cover interesting points, and which will allow you to choose the best choice. (Salazar Yamada, 2010)
Be assertive: knowing how to ask for information, exchanging opinions, taking time to think and respect others.
Self-esteem: valuing oneself, knowing how to recognize one's good things and limitations; wanting it improves and not hurt
Reflection: Consider what we want thinking about the consequences and looking for alternatives to achieve what we want without harming others.
Patience: do not get carried away by the first thing that comes to mind but give yourself the time and place to think before acting.
Steps to make decisions
Stop.- Do not be so impulsive because when you do things without thinking something goes wrong.
You can acquire responsibilities that could not be assumed
Reflect.- Observe reality and ask what you want. Think about the options to achieve what you want and what they ask of you. If it is difficult to reconcile, think about prioritizing, think about the results. Seek guidance and learn
Choose.- Based on the alternatives, choose the one you consider best. It is human to be wrong. But it is always good to think because that way it is more difficult to be wrong.
Communicate.- It is important to communicate the decision selectively. Being assertive is different from being aggressive or passive
Execute the decision.- It is important to defend personal points of view and be firm in the affirmations. If there is a need to change your mind, do so; but if not, stay firm and do the right thing.
Decision making in the organization
Decision making encompasses all four administrative functions, so managers when planning, organizing, conducting, and controlling are often referred to as decision makers. (Carmen, 2005)
In his work (Carmen, 2005) he describes that making a decision involves choosing the best alternative among the possible ones, information is needed on each of these alternatives and their consequences regarding our objective. The importance of information in decision making is evident in the definition of decision proposed by Forrester, "the process of transforming information into action".
Consolidated decision-making process. (Carmen, 2005, p. 1)
Feedback is also known in Latin America as the feedback process, and is a characteristic of cybernetic systems.
Stages in the decision-making process
In her work (Carmen, 2005) she describes us: The following figure shows us the decision-making process as a series of eight steps that begins with the identification of the problem, the steps to select an alternative that can solve the problem, and conclude with the evaluation of the effectiveness of the decision. This process can be applied to both your personal decisions and an action of a company, in turn it can also be applied to both individual and group decisions.
8 steps process for decision making (Carmen, 2005)
Types of decisions
All decisions are not the same and do not produce the same consequences, nor are their adoption of the same relevance, which is why there are different types of decisions. There are several proposals for their classification, we will highlight the most representative ones. (Carmen, 2005)
Level typology
This classification is connected with the concept of organizational structure and the idea of hierarchy that derives from it. Decisions are classified according to the hierarchical position or administrative level occupied by the decision maker. From this approach we will distinguish:
- Strategic (or planning) decisions. They are decisions made by decision makers located at the apex of the hierarchical pyramid or senior managers. Tactical or piloting decisions. They are decisions made by middle managers. Operational decisions. Adopted by executives who are at the lowest level.
Typology by methods
This classification is due to Simón (1977) who makes a classification based on the similarity of the methods used for decision-making, regardless of the decision levels. Thus it distinguishes a continuous series of decisions at the extremes of which are programmed and unscheduled decisions. (Carmen, 2005)
Decision environments
Something that seems interesting and that many of us take for granted is the aspect of the environments that are involved at the time of decision-making, and (Carmen, 2005), makes an interesting mention regarding this topic, which quoted below.
Starr considers that a decision situation consists of five basic elements:
Strategies. Action courses or conditional plans made up of controllable variables.
States of nature. In general, the states of nature are the events on which the decision depends and on which only the decision-maker cannot influence.
Outcomes or results. They are those that take place when using a specific strategy, given a specific state of nature.
Probability predictions that each of the states of nature will occur.
Decision criteria, which shows how to use the information above to select the plan to follow.
The level of information determines the type of environment of the decision. According to Perez Gorostegui the decision environments are as follows:
- Certainty: The environment of certainty is one in which the decision maker knows with absolute certainty the states of nature that are going to occur. Risk: It is one in which the decision maker knows which states of nature can occur and the probability that each of them has. Structured uncertainty: It is one in which the states of nature are known, but not the probability of each one of them. Unstructured uncertainty: One in which the possible states of nature are not even known.
Conclusions
All the information related to these two topics exposed in this article, allows us to know the importance, interest and relevance in our daily life, be it on a personal or work level. By not knowing much information about it, there is a tendency to have an incorrect judgment since we deduce that they are simple things, but this is not the case, because there are many factors that are involved, from an individual matter such as personality, feelings, thoughts among others; in a similar way it is at the collective level. If it is an organization, the organizational culture influences. Knowing all this information allows you to make better choices.
Bibliography
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