Accounting is the process by which the economic information of an organization or company is identified, measured, recorded and communicated, so that managers can assess their situation. Within it are several branches: Financial Accounting, Cost Accounting and Management Accounting, in which the development of this research will be framed.
The proposed objectives are:
- To determine in the different periods of the historical evolution of Management Accounting the most important events that occurred in the measurement of costs in the universal sphere. Present the stages of improvement of the Cuban accounting standardization.
1.1 Historical evolution of Management Accounting
To address aspects related to the origins and development of Management Accounting, it is very important to have the concepts of costs and expenses clearly defined as terminology to follow. There are different criteria of specialists on them, so that a homogeneity defined so far is not envisioned. Among the authors studied in this regard, the following stand out: Marx (1867); Pedersen (1958); French General Accounting Plan (1957); Schneider (1957); Lawrence (1960); Morton and Lyle (1967); Guevara (1970); Finance and Prices Magazine (1988); Polimeni, Fabozzi and Adelberg (1990) and Mallo (1991).
In the development of the research, it will not coincide with Morton and Lyle (1967) and Polimeni, Fabozzi and Adelberg (1990) since it is considered that the cost is the one that attends to the moment of consumption, and the expense, to the moment of consumption. acquisition; the cost is then seen as a part of the expenses, and the expenses that are linked to the production process and to a certain level of activity achieved are incorporated into the former.
The background of Management Accounting in the universal field will allow us to understand the need for the emergence of new cost systems.
Cost Accounting appeared as a science at the beginning of the 19th century, due to the need to respond to the effects of the Industrial Revolution, especially those derived from internalizing factory operations and the configuration of a new workforce that now it becomes a fixed category. Some of the most relevant aspects that demonstrate the need for calculating and controlling costs from the 18th century to the present day are shown in Table 1.
The existence of three great contributions that unfortunately went unnoticed, the proposals of Church (1915-1920), Clark (1920-1930) and Vatter (1930-1940), should not be ignored during these years.
Church was ahead of his time, but in the manual accounting system, the number of work records implied by his proposal was very costly and he could not resist the economic analysis when compared to the informational improvement it provided. His ideas are also present in the approaches of the so-called transaction cost approach, developed from the publication of the article: "The invisible factory", prepared by Miller and Vollman (1985), which insists on the need to control costs Indirect, since in recent years they have not only increased in relative terms with respect to total cost, but have also grown in absolute terms.
Clark had a particularly lucid and profound vision, but was also unsuccessful at a time when the rigidity of Financial Accounting prevented any attempt at flexibility in the analysis, so his ideas were forgotten until, in 1953, he appeared the Direct Costing Model.
Horngren and Foster (1987) recognize that Professor Vatter is one of the most important cost accounting writers of the 20th century.
Even though Vatter's studies were not understood either, today there is no doubt that, together with the previous ones, they formed the basis on which the movement of modern Management Accounting is based.
Starting in 1950, the need to articulate Management Accounting suitable for decision making became one of the main centers of attention for many researchers and professionals related to Cost Accounting. It is evident that after Schneider's (1957) proposals for modeling the accounting cycle to determine the internal result, the writers continued to postpone the work leading to the systematization of the Cost Accounting models, so their proposal constitutes a risky bet on the future orientation of Cost Accounting.
As a result of the new research trends, during the following twenty years, a series of works appear that begin to shape Management Accounting. Horngren (1995) and Peters (1999), in their investigations, declare four very important stages, naming them as follows:
- "Scientific administration or Taylerian management: from the beginning of the century." Era of strategy ": decade of the " "Era of quality": decade of the " " Era of change in reengineering ": from the decade of the '
Precisely, on the meaning of the term Management Accounting, there are different approaches or criteria, which are treated by prestigious authors. However, there are common aspects, which are shown in Scheme 1.
This work coincides with the concept of Management Accounting by Fernández (1993), the essence of which states that it is the part of Accounting that captures, registers, evaluates, analyzes and transmits financial and non-financial, quantitative and qualitative information, in order to facilitate the decision making of the different levels of the organization, related to the monitoring and achievement of the strategic and general objectives set, to the planning, control and measurement of all the activities of the organization (internal and external), in close collaboration with the rest of the functional areas and allowing those responsible for its execution to participate, together with management, in decision-making.
Table 1.
Evolution of cost measurement and control
| Periods | Relevant aspects |
| Great Civilizations: | In Egyptian culture, the need to know the income and expenses of their economies began to be felt, and thus the simple item first arises, recording these transactions on a sheet of papyrus (plant whose marrow the ancients used to write). |
| XIV century: | Emergence of Cost Accounting. |
| Trade development: | The growing trade and later the Industrial Revolution, demanded much greater information needs, which were supported by the Double Item, developed by accounting pioneers such as Pacioli in 1494. It is the era of bookkeeping, characterized by the mere preservation of the records of all movements. |
| 1776:
Industrial era |
The Industrial Revolution brought great changes to the economic infrastructure of England, manufacturing workshops disappeared and large factories emerged, creating the need to act with greater control over materials and labor and the cost element that accumulates the use of machines and equipment. The Double Item is perfected, giving birth to the Financial Statements. |
| 1777: | First description of production costs by processes in a linen yarn stocking manufacturing company. |
| 1778: | Auxiliary books began to be used in all the elements that had an impact on the cost of the products, such as wages, work materials and delivery dates. |
| 1800: | Emergence of joint costs in the Chemical Industry. |
| 1828 - 1839: | In England, Babbge publishes a book highlighting the need for factories to establish an Accounting Department. Later, at the end of the 19th century, the author Metcalfe published his first book, which he called “Manufacturing Costs”. |
Table 1.
| Periods | Relevant aspects |
| 1855: | The Lyman Mill, a New England textile mill Cost System, allows its managers to control the efficiency of converting raw material factories into a variety of finished products, based on the company, and gave information about the cost of finished products, worker productivity, the impact of changes in plant distribution, as well as the control of reception and use of cotton. |
| 1860 - 1870: | On the US railroads, accounting procedures were developed to facilitate comprehensive planning and control procedures, due to the need to record and summarize monetary transactions. They also generated financial reports on the operations of the subunits of large and geographically dispersed railroad companies. |
| 1880: | Mass production companies such as tobacco, matches, detergents, photographic film and flour, metal and manufacturing industries are created in the USA, they adopted the internal accounting systems of the railways to their own organizations. It is noteworthy that the cost information focused exclusively on direct labor and materials. No attention was paid to fixed costs and capital costs. |
| 1889 - 1895: | Taylor, one of the pioneers of industrial management control, was the one who developed Analytical Accounting, allocation of indirect costs, timing and monitoring of direct labor times, standards, allocation of indirect costs. by means of the times of the manpower or the times of machine, the management of the inventories and of the materials and the remuneration to the yield. |
| 1890 - 1915: | The basic structure of Cost Accounting is designed and cost registers are integrated into the general accounts in countries such as England and the United States, and concepts such as: establishment of procedures for the distribution of indirect manufacturing costs were contributed; adaptation of reports and records for internal and external users; valuation of inventories, estimation of material and labor costs and the accounting of assets at their acquisition value. In 1903-1904, the use of deadlock graphs to express the deviation of costs with output is documented in these countries. |
Evolution of cost measurement and control (continued)
Table 1.
| Periods | Relevant aspects |
| 1907: | As a result of a long process of innovations started in 1902 under the tutelage of the Du Pont brothers. Donalson Brown, a collaborator with Pierre Du Pont de Nemours at the head of the chemical group, invented the formula that relates the capital profitability index, the exploitation profitability index and the capital turnover index. They invent the Return on Investment (ROI) accounting instrument, which was subsequently published in 1912 by financial executive Donaldson. For the first time, the various types of accounting used until then independently (Capital Accounting, Financial Accounting, Cost Accounting) were linked in a single, global and consistent model, and constituted a complete economic image of the company. |
| 1908 -1909: | Harrington describes the standard cost value for time planning and control. |
| 1915 - 1920: | Great contributions from Church. It raises the need to control indirect costs throughout its entire journey through the company, finally proceeding with its assignment based on different references to direct charges, in such a way that a better identification with the cost of the product is made possible. |
| 1920 - 1930: | Great contributions from Clark. It presents the relevance of different costs for different purposes, and its focus on the advisability of separately reflecting the behavior of costs, distinguishing between fixed and variable costs with respect to the product and between differential and incurred costs, with respect to taking of decisions. |
| 1925: | DuPont and General Motors developed many of the management control practices: decentralization via functional or multidivisional organization, ROI as a performance measure, formal capital allocation procedures, Budgeting and planning cycles. Flexible budgeting, ROI and standard volume pricing, incentive and profit-sharing plans, and a transfer pricing policy based on market prices. |
Evolution of cost measurement and control (continued)
Table 1.
| Periods | Relevant aspects |
| 1950:
Information age |
Characterized by the use of macrocomputers that were limited to reproducing the manual accounting systems, that is, they repeated the same procedure but with computers, therefore, it is necessary to analyze both the content and the costs of the information systems., to study the economic impact of a certain demand for information systems.
Emergence of Management Accounting. Partial Cost Systems appear. Its main author is Horngren. |
| 1953: | The American Littleton, in view of the growth of fixed assets, defined the need to amortize them through consumption rates on manufactured products as indirect costs. |
| 1955: | The concept of comptrollership arises as a means of controlling the production and financial activities of organizations. |
| 1956 - 1957: | Cook; Dean; Stone and Hirschleifer, initially outline in their studies the implantation of the transfer pricing technique, to solve the problems derived from the section of services between sections in the context of responsibility centers. |
| 1957: | Proposal for modeling the accounting cycle for the determination of the internal result by Schneider. |
| 1960: | The concept of Administrative Accounting prevails as a tool for the analysis of manufacturing costs and as a basic instrument for the decision-making process.
An important stream of applying quantitative models to a variety of planning and control problems begins (analytical techniques, including regression analysis, linear and nonlinear programming, probability theory, hypothesis testing, and theory of the decision). |
| 1961 - 1964: | Jaedicke (1961), Charnes and Cooper (1963) and Jaedike and Robicheck (1964), developed the analysis techniques derived from Direct- C osting, mainly studies on deadlock and costs-volumes of operations-benefits, to raise the such restrictive hypotheses with which they were originally stated. |
Evolution of cost measurement and control (continued)
Table 1.
| Periods | Relevant aspects |
| 1965: | Anthony conducted significant research on traditional strategic planning and management control in the context of the budget system, differentiating between different levels in the area of strategic planning, management and execution. |
| 1969 - 1971: | Shapley and Shubick (1969) and Thomás (1971), study in depth the allocation of costs in joint production and its arbitrariness. |
| 1975 - 1982: | Works initiated by Holmstrom (1975) and continued in Shavell (1979) and Baiman (1982), on the contribution of the Theory of the Agency, to the system of relations that are established in cascade between superiors and subordinates within the organization. |
| 1977: | Simón, outlines the Theory regarding the decentralization of companies in decision-making and responsibility assumption aimed at a more effective motivation and coordination. |
| Before 1980: | Stagnation for Cost Accounting in relation to other branches of Accounting. Industrial companies considered that their cost accumulation procedures constituted industrial secrets, since the financial information system did not include the Cost Accounting databases and files. |
| 1980: | Emergence of Strategic Management Accounting. |
| nineteen eighty one: | The North American Johnson, highlighted the importance of Cost Accounting and Cost Systems as a key tool to provide management information on production, which implied existence of useful cost files for setting adequate prices in competitive markets.
The first IBM personal computer appears. |
Evolution of cost measurement and control (continued)
Table 1.
| Periods | Relevant aspects | ||||||||
| After 1981: | The current Costing Systems emerge, and the more the organizational system and the production systems advance and change, new methodologies and tools for measuring and controlling costs will be implemented. Examples: Just i n Time (JIT) or Back - Flush Accounting; Life - Cycle Costing; Throughput Accounting (TA., Costing method used in the Theory of Constraints, TOC, its main author is Goldratt) and the Value Chain.
Activity Based Costing flourishes. Its main authors Kaplan and Cooper (1987). |
||||||||
| Aspects that take into account | SCT | SCP | ABC | HIT | LCC | TA | CV | Legend:
STC: Total Costing System SCP: Partial Cost Systems ABC: Activity Based Costing JIT: Just in Time LCC: Life Cycle Costing TA: Throughput Accounting CV: Value Chain CIF: Indirect Manufacturing Costs |
|
| Do you use cause-effect relationships? | Not | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | ||
| Do you assign the CIF correctly? | Not | - | Yes | Yes | - | - | Yes | ||
| Do you pay for products and services in a proper way? | Not | Yes | Yes | Yes | - | Not | Yes | ||
| Is it a good source for making decisions? | Not | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Not | Yes | ||
| Do you use inventory management? | Yes | - | Not | Not | - | Not | - | ||
| Does it serve as a management tool? | Not | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | ||
| Does it facilitate the control of related resources? | Not | Yes | Yes | - | Yes | Yes | Yes | ||
| Are you focused on financial and accounting reports? | Yes | Not | Not | Not | Not | Not | Not | ||
| Is it useful to carry out strategic cost analysis? | Not | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | ||
Evolution of cost measurement and control (continued)
Table 1.
Evolution of cost measurement and control (continued)
| Periods | Relevant aspects |
| In the XXI century: Third Computer Revolution.
It was for knowledge. |
Traditional financial statements do not respond to certain information for the decision-making process, such as: information on financial risks, environmental impact, management of intellectual capital, capacity for innovation, degree of customer satisfaction, knowledge management, quality management, among others. |
Source: own elaboration based on the reviewed literature
Scheme 1.
Common aspects in the meaning of the term Management Accounting
Source: own elaboration based on the reviewed literature
In the 21st century, information needs have changed beyond rigid accounting regulations and standards. The role of the accountant is growing in the new Age for Knowledge in which accounting techniques need to be used, which have not yet emerged.
From the point of view of technology, the third computer revolution is present, where the intensive use of tools linked to the telecommunications sector introduces important changes in many of the typical activities of accounting.
The accountant has new computer tools that try to manage, share and channel both the real information and the intangible knowledge of the company so that it flows in the organization integrated into applications, although among them the Electronic Data Interchange stands out, which is included in the rest of the computer applications, where most of the registrations are carried out automatically, such as: billing or inventory control.
Cuba is not far from the evolutionary development of Management Accounting in the universal sphere. The basic condition for the economic integration of the country is the full process of perfecting its accounting regulations.
The normalization of Cuban Accounting is based on legal provisions dictated by various State organs and its Central Administration, as well as others that are dictated by state entities through laws, decree-laws, decrees and other provisions of the National Assembly of Power Popular (Cuban Parliament), the Council of State and the Council of Ministers, Resolutions and Institutions of Finance and Prices, governing bodies of the Accounting in the country, Resolutions and Instructions of the Branch Ministries for compliance of companies and subordinate or sponsored dependencies, and complementary provisions of the Cuban Bank.
The Cuban accounting practice has a rich history that began in the late nineteenth century, which was consolidated in 1927, with the beginning of the Higher Accounting Studies at the University of Havana and during the neocolonial Republic it managed to reach its greatest splendor in the decade of the fifties, coinciding with the emergence of Management Accounting.
In the period before 1959, Cuban accounting normalization was highly influenced by North American accounting practice. Subsequently, the changes that occurred in national life weakened the North American influence, and in the 1960s, due to the primacy of concepts later recognized as erroneous, the monetary-mercantile relations between companies disappeared and, virtually, Accounting, which it is limited to economic control.
The Cuban praxis was reborn in 1975, but then very indebted to the accounting concepts that prevailed in the former socialist countries of Eastern Europe, when Cuba was part of the member countries of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CAME). From that moment, successive changes in Cuban Accounting begin, framed in three successive stages of improvement, according to the analyzes carried out by Borrás and López (1996) and Armenteros and Vega (2000), which can be seen in Table 2.
Cuban companies through the Universities and the National Association of Economists and Accountants of Cuba (ANEC), assimilate the crisis of Traditional Cost Accounting, and study the most successful tools that are applied worldwide, to enhance development economic.
Table 2.
Stages of improvement of the Cuban accounting standardization
| Stages | Essence | Effects |
| 1 ra stage
(1977-1986): |
Establishment of:
· Accounting System implemented by means of an explanatory document on the economic content and nature of the accounts to be used and the aspects for which it is debited and credited. · Information System. · Rules and procedures. |
· Excess of informative models.
· Priority to accounting records based on the information needs of higher levels. · Stop the initiative of accountants for the sake of managing compliance. · There is a lack of a set of tools focused on managerial decision-making due to the influence of the member countries of the CAME in the Study Plans, in the universities, in matters of Management Accounting. |
| 2 gives stage
(1987-1992): |
· Changes are taking place aimed at simplifying the National Accounting System (SNC).
· Accounts and subaccounts are deleted. · Functions are decentralized. · Models and annexes of the Information System are streamlined. · The Business Improvement process * begins, in which the various branches of accounting play an important role. |
· The language was not equivalent to that which prevailed in the international arena, given the inheritance of Cuba's participation in the CAME, which came into frank opposition to changes in the world context and the immediate and future projection of the Cuban economy. |
| 3 was stage (1993-present): | · Great flexibility of the Cuban accounting practice.
· Communication with foreign partners by adopting terminology equivalent to international accounting practice. |
· It can be said that the General Accounting Model does not yet present a consolidated result, but rather an evolutionary development in full bloom. |
Source: own elaboration based on revised literature: Armenteros, Vega (2000) and Borrás, López (1996)
CONCLUSIONS
Through the bibliographic review, it is demonstrated how the events that occurred in the different historical periods, both in the universal sphere and in Cuba, have influenced the evolution and measurement of costs, propitiating the need for their control and therefore, emerging new systems, to meet the expectations of the systematic transformation of information into action in the decision-making process, as an important element in strategic cost management.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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"Accounting" Mexico: Editorial Prentice Hall Hispanoamérica S.A., 3raEdition, 1997. Kaplan, RS «Strategic cost analysis». Cost accounting for the '90: the challenge of technological change, Conference proceedings, National Association of Accountants, Montvale New Jersey, 1986. Kaplan, RS “The evolution of Management Accounting. The crisis of Management Accounting Systems ”. Technological change and Management Accounting. USA, /sa/.Lawrence, WB "Cost Accounting". Unión Tipografía: Editorial Hispano América, Volume I, 1960. Lawrence, WB “Cost Accounting”. Unión Tipografía: Editorial Hispano América, Volume I, 1960.Lizcano Álvarez, Jesús et. to the. "Management Accounting in the 90: 50 Disclosure Articles". Madrid, Spain: Ediciones Gráficas Ortega SA, 1996.Lizcano Álvarez, Jesús. "The progress of management accounting." Maldonado, Ricardo; et. to the."Study of General Accounting". Valencia-Venezuela: Editorial Tatum, 1993. Mallo Rodríguez, Carlos. "Analytical accounting. Costs, Returns, Prices and Results ”. Ministry of Economy and Finance of Spain: Institute of Accounting and Accounts Auditing, 4The 1991 Edition. Mallo Rodríguez, Carlos. "Analytical accounting. Costs, Returns, Prices and Results ”. Ministry of Economy and Finance of Spain: Institute of Accounting and Accounts Auditing, 4th taEdition, 1991. Manuel Osorio, Oscar. “Costs and management accounting. The capacity and the level of activity in decision making ”. Double match. Spain: / sn /, No. 27, October 1992.Marx, Carlos. "Capital. Criticism of Political Economy ”. Cuba: Social Sciences Publishing House, Volume III, 1973. Morton, Backer and Lyle Jacobsen. "Cost accounting. An administrative and management approach ”. Cuba: Editorial Pueblo y Educación, 1967.Morton, Backer and Lyle Jacobsen. "Cost accounting. An administrative and management approach ”. Cuba: Editorial Pueblo y Educación, 1967.Navarro Castillo, Francisco et. to the. "Course: Management of Cost Systems and Control of Activities". Madrid, Spain: Instituto de Empresa, Consulting and In-Company Training Division, 1993.Navarro, Eduardo. "Cost Management I: What is cost management? http://www.improven-consultores.comPedersen, HW “The Costs and the Price Policy”. Madrid: Editorial Aguilar, 2da Edition, 1958.Polimeni, Ralph S.; Frank J. Fabozzi and Arthur H. Adelberg. "Cost accounting. Concepts and Applications for Management Decision Making ”. Mexico: Editorial Mc Graw-Hill, 2 da. Edition 1990. Moreno Moreno, María Begoña. "Accounting management models for the current context: a journey from theoretical construction to empirical contrast". Financial Studies. Spain: / sn /, No. 175, 1997.Ripoll Feliú, V. “Management Accounting in Spain”. In "Management Accounting in Latin America". Spain: AIC-AECA Editions. Coordinator: Jesús Lizcano Álvarez, (1996). Saez Torrecilla, A. and G. Gutiérrez Díaz. "Cost accounting". Madrid: UNED, 1987.Sáez Torrecilla, Ángel, A. Fernández Fernández and G. Gutiérrez Díaz. "Costs accounting and management accounting". Spain: Editorial Mc Graw Hill, Volume I, 1993.Sáez Torrecilla, Ángel, et. to the. "Current Cost Accounting Issues". Spain: Mc Graw-Hill Interamericana SA, 1993, Sánchez Rebull, M. Victoria. "The ABC proposal applied to the hotel sector".Doctoral thesis directed by DrC. Rocafort Nicolau, Alfredo. Spain: 2002 Schneider, Erich. Industrial Accounting. Fundamentals and main problems ”. Madrid: Editorial Aguilar SA, 4The Edition, first reprint 1972.Vega Falcón, Vladimir. "The cost of production as an economic category". Cuba: University of Matanzas, February 1997.
Criterion of the author of the investigation based on concepts of different authors of the consulted literature, among which we can mention: Horngren, Charles; et. to the. "Accounting" Mexico: Editorial Prentice Hall Latin America SA, 3 ra Edition, 1997, p. 2 and Maldonado, Ricardo; et. to the. "Study of General Accounting". Valencia-Venezuela: Editorial Tatum, 1993, p. 11, which in her work also makes reference to other definitions of: American Institute of Public Accountants, American Association of Accountants and E. Luque.
In 1867 Marx writes his postulates. The consulted work is Marx, Carlos. First Section "The transformation of surplus value into profit and of the share of surplus value into profit share". Chapter I "Cost of production and profit". In "Capital. Criticism of Political Economy ”. Cuba: Social Sciences Publishing House, Volume III, 1973, p. fifty.
Pedersen, HW "Costs and Pricing Policy". Madrid: Editorial Aguilar, 2 da Edition, 1958, p. 6.
Collective of Authors. "French General Accounting Plan". / sl /: / sn /, revised in 1957, / sp /.
Although the original edition is from 1957, in the following decade its diffusion occurs. Schneider, Erich. Industrial Accounting. Fundamentals and main problems ”. Madrid: Editorial Aguilar SA, 4 ta edition, first reprint 1972, pp. 6-7.
Lawrence, WB "Cost Accounting". Unión Tipografía: Editorial Hispano América, Volume I, 1960, p. two.
Morton, Backer and Lyle Jacobsen. "Cost accounting. An administrative and management approach ”. Cuba: Editorial Pueblo y Educación, 1967, p. 3.
Guevara, Ernesto. "Considerations on the costs of production as a basis for the economic analysis of companies subject to the budget system." Havana, Cuba: Editorial Casa de las América, 1970, Works 1957-1967, Volume II, p. 214.
Collective of Authors. ¨ Finance and Credits ¨. Cuba: / sn /, 1988, / sp /.
Polimeni, Ralph S.; Frank J. Fabozzi and Arthur H. Adelberg. "Cost accounting. Concepts and Applications for Management Decision Making ”. Mexico: Mc Graw-Hill Publishing, 2 nd. Edition 1990, p. 10.
Mallo Rodríguez, Carlos. "Analytical accounting. Costs, Returns, Prices and Results ”. Ministry of Economy and Finance of Spain: Institute of Accounting and Auditing, 4 ta Edition 1991, p. 410.
However, from the point of view of the decision-making process there are costs that are not going to be expenses (example: the opportunity cost) and there are expenses that are not costs (examples: the income tax and extraordinary expenses). In the same way, there are expenses and costs that are not payments (example: amortization), nor are all payments costs (example: dividends).
In 1953, the Direct Costing Model appeared in Research Report No. 23 of the National Association of Accounting (NAA), and after a few years, it was definitively accepted in Research Report No. 27, under the auspices of the then (NAA), currently the Institute of Management Accountants (IMA).
Horngren, Ch. T. and G. Foster. " Cost Accounting: A Managerial Emphasis ". New Jersey: Prentice-Hall International, Englewood Cliffs, 6 ta Edition, 1987.
Among the authors, the works presented by: Fernández Fernández, Antonio stand out. Chapter 3: “Cost accounting and management accounting: a delimiting proposal”. In Sáez Torrecilla, Ángel. "Current Cost Accounting Issues". Spain: Mc Graw-Hill Interamericana SA, 1993, pp. 51-66 ; Fernández Muñoz, Ariel. "Management accounting and business excellence". / sl /: / sn / 1 ra Edition, January 1997 / sp / y Saez Torrecilla, A. and G. Gutierrez Diaz. "Cost accounting". Madrid: UNED, 1987, p. 22.
Called "Age of Knowledge" by prestigious authors such as Gorey and Dorat (1996) and Bueno, E. (1999).
Internet applications such as the World Wide Web, email, distribution lists, newsletters, remote access to any Internet computer, file transfer systems, the use of computer agents to make reports that combine information internal and external, interactive chats and videoconferences are some of the technologies with great impact on typical accounting activities.
Examples of applications: Intranet, Groupware, Data Mining, Knowledge Data Base, document management, among others.
Borrás, Francisco and Miriam López. "Management Accounting in Cuba". In Lizcano, J. "Management Accounting in Latin America". Madrid: AECA, 1996, pp. 75-94.
Armenteros Díaz, Marta and Vladimir Vega Falcón. Chapter 3. "Historical Evolution of Management Accounting in Cuba". At AECA “Situations and trends in Management Accounting in the Ibero-American sphere”. Spain: Ediciones Gráficas Ortega, 2000, pp. 25-29.
* Business Improvement: process of continuous improvement of the internal management of the company, which makes it possible to systematically achieve high performance to produce competitive goods or services, with the fundamental objective of achieving company competitiveness, increasing efficiency and effectiveness, on the basis of granting it the powers and establishing policies, principles and procedures that promote the development of initiative, creativity and individual and collective responsibility, the bases of which were approved by Decree Law 187 (1998).
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