The evolution of the concept of quality in industry and services shows us that we have passed a stage where quality only referred to the final control. To separate bad products from good products, to a Quality Control stage in the process, with the motto: "Quality is not controlled, it is manufactured".
Finally we come to a Design Quality that means not only correcting or reducing defects but preventing them from happening, as postulated in the Total Quality approach.
The path to Total Quality in addition to requiring the establishment of a quality philosophy, creating a new culture, maintaining leadership, developing staff and teamwork, developing suppliers, having a customer focus and planning for quality.
generations-of-quality-toolsIt demands to overcome a series of difficulties in the work that is carried out day by day. It is required to resolve the variations that arise in the different production processes, reduce defects and also improve standard performance levels.
To solve these problems or variations and improve the Quality, it is necessary to be based on facts and not be guided only by common sense, experience or audacity. In addition, it is necessary to apply a set of statistical tools following a systematic and standardized problem-solving procedure.
BASIC QUALITY TOOLS
A Verification Sheet (also called “Control” or “Check”) is a form in table or diagram format, intended to record and compile data using a simple and systematic method, such as the annotation of marks associated with the occurrence of certain events. This data collection technique is prepared in such a way that it is easy to use and interferes as little as possible with the activity of the registrant.
Advantage.
- It is a method that provides data that is easy to understand and that is obtained through a simple and efficient process that can be applied to any area of the organization. Verification Sheets quickly reflect the underlying trends and patterns in the data.
Utilities.
- In the improvement of the Quality, it is used both in the study of the symptoms of a problem, in the investigation of the causes or in the collection and analysis of data to test some hypothesis. It is also used as a starting point for the elaboration of other tools, such as Control Charts.
Pareto chart
The Pareto Diagram is a simple and graphical method of analysis that allows discrimination between the most important causes of a problem (the few and vital) and those that are less so (the many and trivial).
Advantage.
- Helps to focus on the causes that will have the greatest impact if solved. Provides a quick and simple view of the relative importance of problems. Helps prevent some causes from worsening by trying to solve others. Its highly visible format provides a incentive to keep fighting for more improvements.
Utilities.
- Determine what is the key cause of a problem, separating it from other present but less important ones. Contrast the effectiveness of the improvements obtained, comparing successive diagrams obtained at different times. They can also be used both to investigate effects and causes. Easily communicate to other members of the organization the conclusions on causes, effects and costs of errors.
Cause-effect diagram
The Ishikawa diagram, or Cause - Effect Diagram, is a tool that helps to identify, classify and reveal possible causes, both of specific problems and of quality characteristics. Graphically illustrates the relationships between a given result (effects) and the factors (causes) that influence that result.
Advantage.
- It allows the group to focus on the content of the problem, not on the history of the problem or the different personal interests of the team members. It helps determine the main causes of a problem, or the causes of quality characteristics, using To do this, a structured approach stimulates the participation of the members of the working group, thus making it possible to take better advantage of the knowledge that each of them has about the process.
Utilities.
- Identify the root causes, or main causes, of a problem or effect. Classify and relate the interactions between factors that are affecting the result of a process.
- Stratification.
It is a method consisting of classifying the available data by groups with similar characteristics. Each group is called a stratum.
The strata to be defined will be based on the particular situation in question, stratifications can be established according to:
- Machinery and equipment. Management areas. Geographical location.
Advantage.
It is very complete for the quality of the company.
Utilities.
It allows isolating the cause of a problem, identifying the degree of influence of certain factors on the outcome of a process.
Stratification can be based on and serve as a basis for different quality tools, although the histogram is the most common way of presenting it.
Dispersion diagram.
Sometimes it is interesting to know if there is some kind of relationship between two variables. For example, it may happen that two variables are related so that when increasing the value of one, it increases the value of the other. In this case we would talk about the existence of a positive correlation. It could also happen that when one occurs in one direction, the other derives in the opposite direction; for example, increasing the value of variable x reduces the value of variable y. So, you would be faced with a negative correlation. If the values of both variables are revealed independent of each other, it would be affirmed that there is no correlation.
Advantage.
- This is an especially useful tool to study and identify the possible relationships between the observed changes in two different sets of variables. It supplies the data to confirm hypotheses about whether two variables are related. It provides a visual means to test the strength of a possible relationship.
Histogram
A histogram is a vertical bar graph that represents the distribution of a data set.
Advantage.
- Its construction will help to understand the central tendency, dispersion and relative frequencies of the different values. It shows large amounts of data giving a clear and simple view of its distribution.
Utilities.
The Histogram is especially useful when you have a large number of data that must be organized, to analyze them in more detail or to make decisions based on them.
It is an effective means of transmitting information about a process to other people in an accurate and intelligible way.
It allows the comparison of the results of a process with the specifications previously established for it. In this case, the Histogram can determine to what extent the process is producing good results and to what extent there are deviations from the limits set in the specifications.
It provides, by studying the distribution of data, an excellent starting point for generating hypotheses about unsatisfactory performance.
Control charts
A control chart is a statistical tool used to assess the stability of a process. It allows to distinguish between the causes of variation. Every process will have variations, and can be grouped into:
Random causes of variation. They are unknown causes and of little significance, due to chance and present in all processes. difficult identification and disposal.
Specific causes (attributable or assignable). They should not normally be present in the process. They cause significant variations. they can be discovered and removed.
Control charts were devised by Shewhart during the development of statistical quality control. They have had a great diffusion being widely used in the control of industrial processes. However, with the reformulation of the Quality concept and its extension to service companies and administrative and auxiliary units, they have become control methods applicable to processes carried out in these areas.
There are different types of control charts:
Data by variables. Which in turn can be mean and range, median and range, and individual measured values.
Data by attributes. Of the acceptable / unacceptable style, yes / no,…
Advantage.
- It allows to distinguish between random and specific causes of process variation, as a guideline for management's action. Control charts are useful to monitor the variation of a process over time, test the effectiveness of the improvement actions undertaken, as well as to estimate the capacity of the process.
Utilities.
They help to improve processes, so that they behave uniformly and predictably for higher quality, lower costs and greater efficiency.
They provide a common language for analysis of process performance.
Flowchart
It is a diagram that uses graphic symbols to represent the flow and phases of a process. It is especially indicated at the beginning of a process improvement plan, by helping to understand how these work. It is basic in process management.
Advantage.
- Facilitates understanding of the process. At the same time, it promotes agreement, among team members, on the nature and development of the analyzed process. It is a fundamental tool to obtain improvements by redesigning the process, or the design of an alternative one. It identifies problems, opportunities for improvement and breakpoints of the process. It reveals the supplier-customer relationships, whether internal or external.
Methodology based on the PHRA Cycle
A problem is a deviation between what is expected to happen and what actually happens, with enough importance for someone to think that the deviation should be corrected. Most problem-solving procedures consist of a series of steps structured under the concept of the Shewhart Improvement Cycle (also known as the Deming Cycle) consisting of four steps: plan, do, check, and act.
Planning
In the case of an improvement project, the planning phase has, among others, the objective of ensuring that the project selected for the analysis is really the most important in terms of its contribution to the improvement of the key business indicators. It is convenient for senior management to define from a strategic point of view which indicators have priority for improvement.
Do
In this phase, the team assigned to the project should focus on the analysis of the causes that caused the appearance of the problem and the search for alternative solutions, and then be able to provide the one they consider most appropriate to solve the problem.
Review
The same techniques that were used during the planning phase to evaluate and detect areas of opportunity for improvement can be used during this phase.
Act
This phase consists of incorporating into the next planning cycle the necessary adjustments that have been evidenced in the verification phase. Continual improvement is precisely about solving problem after problem without interruption.
QUALITY ADMINISTRATIVE TOOLS.
Affinity Diagram
The Affinity Diagram, sometimes referred to as the KJ method, is a tool that synthesizes a set of verbal data (ideas, opinions, themes, expressions,…) grouping them based on the relationship they have with each other. It is based, therefore, on the principle that much of this verbal data is related so it can be gathered under a few general ideas.
It is considered a special kind of "brainstorm", this creativity technique often constituting the starting point for diagramming.
Utilities.
- It promotes the creativity of all the members of all the members of the work team in all phases of the process. It breaks down communication barriers and promotes non-traditional connections between ideas / issues. It promotes the "appropriation" of the results that emerge because the team creates both the detailed introduction of contributions and the overall results.
Advantage.
- It is intended to address a problem directly. You want to organize a large set of data. The subject you want to work on is confusing.
Relationship Diagram
The relationship diagram is a tool that helps to perceive the logical relationship that exists between a series of chained problems, activities or departments as causes and effects. In relationship diagrams there is a possibility that more than one effect is represented and that one cause may be the effect of another cause at the same time. That is, it freely expresses the relationships between causes and effects, and helps to discover the main cause that affects the whole situation.
The relationship diagram is constructed by indicating the logical relationships that exist between causal factors. Some of the uses that are given at the business level to a relationship diagram are: the development of quality policies, the introduction and promotion of total quality control, improvements to designs based on market complaints, improvements to the manufacturing process, promotion of group activities, administrative changes, etc.
The team begins its task looking for the possible theoretical causes of the problem under study. For this, the brainstorming or brainstorming procedure is recommended. Because ideas can be very diverse, the next step is to stratify or categorize them, and then represent them in a cause-effect or Ishikawa diagram.
From the list of real causes, the most important and viable ones must be selected to think about possible solutions. The recommended solutions have to be approved by the appropriate party. Subsequently, a team responsible for the implementation of approved solutions must be formed, to which the necessary budget is assigned to carry it out successfully.
Tree diagram
The Tree Diagram, or systematic, is a technique that allows obtaining an overview of the means necessary to achieve a goal or solve a problem.
Based on general information, such as the goal to be achieved, the degree of detail on the means necessary to achieve it is gradually increased. This greater detail is represented by a structure in which one begins with a general goal (the "trunk") and continues with the identification of more precise levels of action (the successive "branches"). The branches of the first level are means to achieve the goal but, in turn, these means are also goals, intermediate objectives, which will be achieved thanks to the means of the branches of the next level. Thus repeatedly until reaching a sufficient degree of specificity about the means to be used.
Advantage.
- Encourages team members to expand their thinking by creating solutions. Keeps the entire team tied to the overall goals and sub-goals of a task. Moves the theory planning team into the real world.
Utilities.
- Break down any general goal, graphically, into phases or specific objectives. Determine detailed actions to achieve an objective.
Matrix Diagram or Matrix of Relationships
This type of diagram facilitates the identification of relationships that may exist between two or more factors, be these: problems, causes and processes; methods and objectives; or any other set of variables. A frequent application of this diagram is the establishment of relationships between customer requirements and quality characteristics of the product or service.
In the case of the figure, it is an L-type matrix, being a two-dimensional table. However, the Matrix Diagram can have different configurations. Thus, we can speak of the type -T, which combine two L-type matrices. The Y-type and X-type combine three and four L-type matrices respectively.
Utilities.
- Clearly visualize accountability patterns so that there is an even and appropriate distribution of tasks. Helps the team reach a consensus regarding small decisions, improving the quality of, and support for, the final decision. a team in the process of closely observing a large number of important decision factors.
Advantage.
- Establish the relationship between different elements or factors, as well as the degree to which it occurs. It makes perceptible patterns of responsibility as well as the distribution of tasks.
Arrow Diagram
It is used to schedule the activities necessary to complete a complex task as soon as possible, monitoring the progress of each activity. Its objective is to determine the optimal time for a project, identify the activities necessary to meet the minimum time, prepare a complete and detailed plan, review the plan at the planning stage and classify the priorities of the project. It is similar to the technique known as CPM (Critical Route Path).
ADVANCED QUALITY TOOLS.
Benchmarking
Benchmarking is a process by which best practices in a certain process or activity are identified, analyzed and incorporated into the internal operations of the company.
Within the definition of Benchmarking as a key management process to be applied in the organization to improve its leadership position, we find several key elements:
Competition, which includes an internal competitor, an admired organization within the same sector, or an admired organization within any other sector.
Measurement, both of the operation of the operations themselves and of the Benchmark company, or benchmark that we are going to take as an organization that has the best qualities in a given field.
It represents much more than a Competition Analysis, examining not only what is produced but how it is produced, or Market Research, studying not only the acceptance of the organization or the product in the market but the business practices of large companies. that meet customer needs.
Customer satisfaction, better understanding their needs by focusing on best practices within the sector.
Openness to new ideas, taking a broader perspective and understanding that there are other, and perhaps better, ways of doing things.
Continuous Improvement: Benchmarking is a continuous process of management and self-improvement.
There are several types of Benchmarking: Internal (using ourselves as a starting point to compare ourselves with others), Competitive (studying what the competition does and how it does it), Outside the sector (discovering more creative ways of doing things), Functional (comparing a specific function between two or more companies) and Business Processes (focusing on the improvement of critical business processes).
A Benchmarking project usually follows the following stages: Preparation (Identification of the object of the study and own measurement), Discovery of facts (Research on best practices), Development of actions (Incorporation of best practices into own operations) and Monitoring and recalibration.
Process Reengineering
Process reengineering is a technique by which the operation of one or more processes within a company is analyzed in depth in order to completely redesign them and radically improve
Process reengineering arises as a response to the inefficiencies of functional organization in companies and follows a structured method consisting of:
- Identify the key processes of the company. Assign responsibility for these processes to an "owner". Define the limits of the process. Measure the operation of the process. Redesign the process to improve its operation.
A process is a set of activities organized to achieve an end, from the production of an object or provision of a service to the performance of any internal activity (eg, preparation of an invoice). The key business objectives depend on effective cross-functional business processes, and yet these processes are not managed. The result is that business processes become ineffective and inefficient, making it necessary to adopt a process management method.
For many years, almost all business organizations have been organized vertically, by role. Currently, the organization by processes allows paying more attention to customer satisfaction through effective and efficient comprehensive management: the transition from the functional management system to the process management system occurs. Process management takes place in three phases, after identifying key processes and assigning responsibilities (owners and teams).
TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES FOR INNOVATION, CREATIVITY AND CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT.
Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a simple way to generate multiple ideas within a team, in order to identify solutions (or alternatives) to a certain problem (or topic).
A brainstorming session is done by following these steps: the purpose of the brainstorming meeting is agreed upon and made available to all participants.
The leader or facilitator of the meeting asks that all possible ideas related to the topic be expressed; each idea is annotated without being analyzed, discussed or criticized; follow the process until all possible ideas are exhausted.
The total list of ideas is then reviewed in order to ensure their understanding by the entire team, to then be reduced and summarized in related groups (through the
affinity diagram) and then proceed to final selection.
The same tool can be achieved with a more structured methodology. That is to say, a first round of idea generation is made, exposing the participants one by one in order of location their idea. Once the round is complete, the process is restarted and so on until the possible resulting ideas are completed.
Nominal Group Technique
It is a particular form of Brainstorm, but it is used to prevent particular individuals from dominating and thus influencing the team meeting. This is achieved by having each participant express their idea in secret, then the facilitator or leader of the meeting summarizes all the ideas and presents the conclusions to the group. If necessary, the process is repeated until the necessary convergence of the ideas presented is obtained.
Force field analysis
It is a highly creative and teamwork technique, which is used to identify opposing forces, as well as those that favor a certain change that you want to make. The "Force Field Analysis" helps to plan the change, identifying how to overcome the barriers that hinder it and enhance the aspects that help achieve it.
The process begins with the work team describing the change or improvement to be achieved and defining the desired results and solutions. Once the basic force field diagram is prepared, favorable / positive / driving and unfavorable / negative / retarding forces are identified through brainstorming. These forces are then placed on the diagram, the positive ones on one side and the negative ones on the other (in opposition), and if possible, they are classified in relation to the possibility of acting on them. The team then evaluates the results.
Finally, an action plan is prepared to overcome negative forces and promote positive ones. In the field of projects it can be used to solve a complex situation, when it requires a trade-off between the specified scope, term, cost and performance.
Taguchi method
Dr. Taguchi developed new methods to optimize the engineering experimentation process, which are now named after him. Its greatest contribution does not lie in the mathematical formulation of the design of experiments, but in the philosophy that supports it. In other words, it developed certain concepts that gave rise to a deep and powerful discipline of quality improvement, which differs substantially from traditional practices.
These concepts are:
- That Quality should be designed in the product rather than inspected in it; That better quality is achieved by minimizing the deviation from a certain Standard, that is, by reducing the natural variation of the execution process; That the cost of quality should be measured as a The standard deviation function and losses must be determined throughout the related system.
Taguchi was based on Deming's observations, which maintain that 85% of Non-Quality is attributable to the organization's processes and only 15% to the employees or workers involved in said processes. Therefore, and based on the three concepts presented, Taguchi developed "robust" production systems, which were not altered by the changing circumstances of the environment and other factors that could affect them.
This method acquires its maximum potential applied to the development of experiments, when multiple factors intervene.
Design of experiments
This tool, which is a branch of applied statistics, is based on the planning, execution, analysis and interpretation of controlled trials. Its practical application is in process improvement.
The Design of Experiments provides a methodology for the scientific study of the factors that affect the variation of the results of a process. This allows determining the correct combination of such factors that will produce the best results, consistent with the established specifications, as well as reducing the variation of said process.
This same analysis provides information on what factors positively affect
and which in a negative way the results, also being able to determine what other factors do not influence the results.
The Design of Experiments overcomes the limitations of the classic method of "trial and error", because in the first place its results are not unpredictable as in the latter method, but also because it establishes what is the combination of factors that produces the obtained result.
Its greatest use is in the product of the project. However, it can also be applied to the variables that measure project management (term, cost, performance) and its trade-off. In other words, by correctly proposing the “experiment” that best reflects the situation of the project under analysis and the associated time, cost and quality variables, the best trade-off solution to adopt can be determined, among a limited number of alternatives.
Deployment of the quality function (QFD).
This tool, whose designation in English is better known as QFD (Quality Function Deployment), is a highly structured methodology that allows identifying, classifying and ordering by degree of importance the customer's requirements and the expected benefits of a given product or service, from way of correlating the factors and corresponding requirements with the design and elaboration of said product or service.
As can be seen, it is a product planning system to be developed, as well as a graphic tool, since it uses the so-called "House of Quality". For its implementation, all the sectors involved with the product to be developed, such as design engineering, marketing, production, etc., participate jointly.
In projects it is useful for determining the scope, that is, to transform the client's requirements and expectations into project scope specifications. In its elaboration in the scope of the project, the participation of the client, along with the other sectors of the project organization, is convenient.
CONCLUSION
The first noteworthy aspect is that most of the Tools require teamwork as a stage for their optimal application, taking into account that a group of people around a table, as is generally believed, in no way means that they are Working as a team. Unfortunately, one of the main difficulties in making the use of the Tools profitable is the poor capacity for teamwork that is detected in most organizations.
The other important aspect to take into account is that most of the Tools are redesignable, are modifiable in their format, purpose or mechanics of implantation, or are applicable for a different purpose than the one proposed in the Tool. In many organizations we have changed the original version of some Tools with highly satisfactory results. I will allow myself to conclude this article reflecting a very recent case of redesign of a Tool, originated in a project with a financial entity.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
- http://www.qualityconsultant.com/calidad/calidad_1. THE 7 NEW TOOLS FOR IMPROVING QUALITY, José Francisco Vilar Barrio, 2nd edition. Basic Statistical Tools for Quality Improvement. ED. RULE. 2 * edition.Ishikawa, Kaouru, What is total quality control ?, Norma, Bogotá, 1994. ADMINISTRATION AND QUALITY CONTROL. / James R. Evans, William M. Lindsay. México, International Thomson Editores, 2000 STATISTICAL QUALITY CONTROL. D. MONTGOMERY. IBEROAMÉRICA.
HUGO HERNANDEZ
GENERATIONS OF QUALITY.
Contributed by: HUGO HERNÁNDEZ
Download the original file
