Summary
Knowledge, for the vast majority of professionals, has become a strategic weapon in today's globalized world, for others, it is the main source of value creation in organizations; knowledge management, more than a fad or something that is in the past is a pressing need.
tools-management-knowledgeThis article aims to provide an overview of Knowledge Management (KM) and the main tools and technologies used to manage and store knowledge.
Importance of KM and evolution of the economy.
In the current era, and within an economic and business context, characterized by phenomena such as globalization, increasing degrees of competitiveness, the evolution of new technologies, e-business and the dynamic nature of new markets, no there seems to be no doubt that knowledge represents one of the most critical values for achieving sustainable success in any organization (Argyris and Schön, 1978; Nonaka, 1991; Kogut and Zander, 1992; Grant, 1996a; Spender, 1996; Davenport and Prusak, 1998; Bontis, 1999a, 1999b; among others). In truth, we live in a “knowledge economy” in which it is made up of the set of information, intelligence and practical experience that, transformed into capacity for action, constitutes the basis of the qualities that organizations treasure. So that,the ability to acquire information, transform it into knowledge, incorporate it as learning, share it quickly and put it into practice where, how and when it is necessary, constitutes the most important organizational capacity to face the turbulence of the environment (Dogson, 1993; Nonaka, 1994; Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995; Bierley and Chakrabarty, 1996; Grant, 1996, 1997; among others).
The importance of scientific-technical development in the world economy has grown since the end of the 70s, until today it becomes fundamental for the development of countries. The constant changes taking place worldwide cause unexpected forms of competition and an increasingly unpredictable market. The speed of the changes, the low adaptability of the organizations and their ephemeral life in the market, affect the way of negotiating and the establishment of stable competitive advantages.
The society in which we find ourselves immersed is characterized by a series of rules that do not resemble at all the mechanistic model or the traditionally existing ones. This new era, which many know as the knowledge era, has at least three strands: globalization, the introduction of new information and communication technologies (ICT), and the changes in the structure of industry and work that are taking place in this new context.
We are in the presence of a radical and discontinuous change, which is also focused on the production and use of knowledge. Some key words are turbulence, dynamism, flexibility, uncertainty, risk and opportunity. And the basic question that emerges from all this refers to how individuals and organizations should prepare to face this new wave of vertiginous changes that are taking place today, from which it is not possible to escape.
Knowledge has become the fundamental factor of wealth creation in the society of our time. In this sense and as Savage (1991) pointed out, the four factors of wealth creation in an economy have always been land, work, capital and knowledge, as shown in figure 1, factors of wealth creation, but the relative importance of each of them has been changing over time.
In recent years, in the field of the so-called knowledge economy, knowledge management has become one of the main research topics and, in the management paradigm par excellence, in the field of organization and management of business institutions.
As Prusak (1996) states "the main source of creating an organization's competitive advantages lies fundamentally in its knowledge or more specifically in what it knows, how it uses what it knows and its ability to learn new things".
Given this reality, a new approach has emerged within business management that places the individual as the guiding center of the organization, as the main asset on whose information, knowledge and experience it is based to increase its competitive capacity and the improvement of its results, the Knowledge management Knowledge
typology
The nature of knowledge has been classified and defined in a variety of ways in literature over time. Although it has been dominant bivalent: tacit and explicit, other classifications of knowledge given by different authors are also presented:
- Tacit and explicit (Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995)
- Individual and collective (Spender and Grant, 1996)
- External and internal (Andreu and Sieber, 1999)
Tacit - explicit (Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995).
Tacit knowledge is that which resides in people based on their abilities, relationships, conceptual capacities, attitudes and internal and external experiences. It is very personal and, therefore, it is not so easily expressed. This tacit knowledge is deeply rooted in the actions that we carry out habitually; and, therefore, in the activities we carry out within a job, a team or a profession. Specifically, it would be the knowledge that a professional possesses about her trade and that is derived from her own experience.
Tacit knowledge can be defined as knowledge accumulated by man, which is difficult to articulate and formally express, so it acquires a high intuitive power. It is a knowledge that is made up of ideas, intuitions and abilities, that is internally incorporated in people, that influences their way of behaving and that is manifested through its application (Grant, 1996). Therefore, it is much more difficult to share, since in most cases it is not easy to articulate and this makes its transfer between people slow, expensive and uncertain (Kogut and Zander, 1992). Tacit knowledge is key to the company and focuses on an individual level in the form of technical skill, that is, on the know-how of individuals.Knowledge in the form of know how implies knowing how to do something and has the nature or character of the procedure, which consists of a state of description of what could define the current practices of the company (Kogut and Zander, 1992).
On the other hand, explicit knowledge is based on procedures, patents, rules of action, reference models, which constitute a formal part of the way in which the company behaves; that is, formal and systematic knowledge, which can be easily communicated and shared in the form of, for example, product specifications, a scientific formula, or a computer program. It is, for example, the knowledge found in a manual on the design process of a training action.
Explicit knowledge is quantifiable, it has form and it is collected in documents and formulas. It has also been defined as that documented information that facilitates the action. Knowledge that is more or less explicit can be entrenched in procedures or represented in documents and databases, and can be transferred with reasonable precision. In contrast, the transfer of tacit knowledge requires extensive personal contact. The transfer relationship can be a partnership, counseling or an apprenticeship, but a personal relationship is always essential.
It is necessary that people of knowledge have time to share it, that they can use it in an effective way and that there are channels to improve the capture of knowledge, both explicit and implicit or tacit knowledge. The information to which individuals are exposed can be considered as potential knowledge; According to (Nonaka 1991), this potential knowledge is transformed into tacit knowledge when information is combined within the context and experience of humans. This cyclical creation of knowledge is illustrated in figure 2 cycle of explicit - implicit knowledge.
Individual and collective (Spender and Grant, 1996). A second distinction of knowledge is that made by Spender and Grant (1996) between individual and collective knowledge. New knowledge always begins with the individual and becomes collective knowledge when it is made available to the entire organization. Collective knowledge consists of company principles, routines and practices, senior management blueprint, organizational culture, and consensus of past experiences, goals, and missions, which are widely disseminated to members of the organization (Matusik and Hill, 1998). Solving collective problems is more complicated than solving individual problems (Cohen and Levinthal, 1990 cited by Zapata, 2004),which implies that imitating collective knowledge can be more difficult than imitating individual knowledge.
External and internal (Andreu and Sieber, 1999).
A third typology of knowledge is the one based on its origin: external or internal knowledge (Andreu and Sieber, 1999). For Andreu and Sieber, external knowledge is that which is not unique or exclusive to a company, but exists in the environment, which is why it is considered a public good. For its part, internal knowledge is difficult to obtain in the market and is characteristic of each organization. The knowledge generated within the company is especially valuable since it tends to be unique, specific and with a large unspoken component. Internal knowledge resides in people, incorporated into behaviors, procedures, software, equipment, stored in various documents or in online databases.
Making the individual knowledge available to the organization and achieving its transformation into collective knowledge constitutes the fundamental challenge of knowledge management; a challenge that is oriented to organizational learning and that authors such as, for example, Nonaka and Takeuchi have analyzed through the so-called Knowledge Spiral.
What is knowledge management?
After having addressed a series of basic concepts on which knowledge management (KM) is based, this is defined. This concept has been defined by numerous authors, the literature that can be referred to referring to it is quite extensive, among which we can mention:
According to (David Snowden, IBM) "Knowledge Management is the dynamic identification, optimization, and management of intellectual assets in the form of explicit or tacit knowledge owned by individuals or communities."
According to Francisca Berrocal and Santiago Pereda Marín (2001), Aledo in 1998 defined Knowledge Management as “the management of learning, obtained at a certain time and place, to allow it to be transferred and applied to another place and time, to obtain the expected results in less time and with fewer errors ”.
For (Andreu, R. and Sieber, S., 1999) KM is «the process that continuously ensures the development and application of all kinds of relevant knowledge in a company, in order to improve its problem solving capacity and thus contribute to the sustainability of its competitive advantages ».
According to Enrique Almagro, cited by Ditzel (2005), GC involves identification and transfer of useful information, making it accessible to those who need it to apply it with a specific objective. ”
Enrique Cabello, General Manager of GC at BBVA defines it as “the set of processes that make the Intellectual Capital of the company grow”.
According to Bill Gates, President of Microsoft, “GC is to create the possibility for everyone to enter and see exactly what is happening, see what the accounts are, where we are doing well, where we are not doing so well, with numerical or graphical information, everyone should have the possibility to enter and see exactly what is happening and communicate with other people to improve all these things ”
For Ángel L. Arbonies, President of the Knowledge Cluster,“ GC is the organization's ability to create new knowledge, disseminate and encapsulate it in products, services and systems ”
Other authors define it as "the process through which an organization generates knowledge from internal and external data, acquires knowledge thanks to the accumulated experience and disseminates that knowledge and experiences to the company as a whole to obtain a competitive advantage".
There is also a simpler definition that, however, faithfully reflects its essence: managing for knowledge is making available to each employee the information they need at the right time for their activity to be effective.
Knowledge Management is another way of responding to the same phenomenon, but emphasizing the value of knowledge as a strategic element that conditions and configures the organization and its model, the management and development of the company, its products and services, and the network of its collaborators, as key criteria in the mission and vision of business value, in the contribution of people and their responsibilities, in the organization of work teams, and in the development of the strategy aimed at exploring and exploit knowledge.
Knowledge Management is, in short, the management of intangible assets that generate value for the organization. Most of these intangibles have to do with processes related in one way or another to the acquisition, structuring and transmission of knowledge. Therefore, knowledge management has organizational learning as its main tool.
Taking into account the definitions cited here, one can observe the diversity of terms with which knowledge management is interpreted in different ways, which covers very different aspects and can manifest itself in different ways.
Therefore, what Knowledge Management proposes is that organizations need to plan, organize, implement and maintain a system that allows them to get the knowledge that exists in the organization, which the people who compose it have, in the Most of the time, they will be inarticulate and tacit knowledge, they become explicit knowledge, so that they can be shared and renewed, to facilitate innovation and continuous progress; in short, to facilitate the creation of value.
Many authors identify people, processes and technology as essential factors of Knowledge Management. Depending on the knowledge management model in question, each of these factors will take a greater or lesser role. Processes, people and technology are considered, according to this definition, as the three key factors of knowledge management. Petrides and Nodine (2003) present these three resources as follows:
People: It is the people, and not the system, that manage knowledge. The organization must, however, develop a system that includes culture, strategy, etc., to create the appropriate environment, in which people are trained and motivated to develop and share the knowledge necessary for the performance of their work.
Processes: The internal flow of information of an organization is affected and formed by processes. Thus, methods such as evaluation and review, continuous improvement, audits, etc., can help the organization establish processes that enable people to capture and disseminate the information and knowledge necessary for their work.
Technology: Technology does not constitute an engine of knowledge management, but rather a facilitating element (tools) to support the effectiveness and efficiency of the organization. In the present work, knowledge management is understood as the system that contemplates the main processes and activities related to the acquisition, presentation, transfer, use and elimination of knowledge. These knowledge management processes are applied to each of the business processes of an organization, integrating into process management. It is a system that considers people as carriers and creators of knowledge in the first place and that establishes the favorable environment with respect to the organization's structure, culture and strategy.Information technologies also provide a support infrastructure for the development of these knowledge management activities.
Knowledge management is concerned with systematizing all procedures related to organizational knowledge, especially facilitating access to current knowledge in the organization and new knowledge, and at all times promoting collective learning and improving processes and results. It is not a random process, but an intentional one, which allows organizations that wish to achieve higher levels of achievement in their results, to do so through a conscious investment in knowledge management.
Knowledge Management and Process Organization
Several and very different interpretations coexist about process-oriented knowledge management or the combination of knowledge management and process management. Quintana Fundora (2006) citing Schreiber (2000) insists, for example, that knowledge is one of the key factors for the success of an organization's processes. For her part, Heisig (2001) considers that processes represent the context of knowledge management and determine in each case the relevant content of knowledge.
Nohr cited by Ditzel (2005) distinguishes three important considerations in the integration of knowledge management and process management:
• Classic process of knowledge management
The classic process of knowledge management establishes the framework for the development of each of the activities and sub-processes of knowledge management. We refer to the identification, search, dissemination and use of knowledge.
• Structuring of processes based on knowledge
Since it is in business processes that the necessary knowledge is determined and new knowledge is generated, these processes constitute the context in which knowledge management is developed. Likewise, knowledge is one of the main resources of business processes, so the perspective of knowledge can be used to organize and distribute the processes of an organization.
• Process-oriented knowledge management
Process-oriented knowledge management involves, on the one hand, the integration of knowledge in each of the business processes and, on the other hand, the integration of knowledge-related sub-processes in organizational processes.
Abdecker et al. cited by Ditzel (2005) consider business processes as the knowledge platform of an organization, since they are based on the key competencies of said organization. They conceive the activities of knowledge management as essential components of the processes of an organization. The use of knowledge is achieved, on the one hand, through the development of knowledge treatment and assimilation processes, while on the other hand, new knowledge is generated as a result of the experience gained. The transmission and preservation of knowledge are also closely related to the development of knowledge. They also distinguish three areas of management intervention for knowledge and process management,which are related to the structuring and use phases of a process-oriented knowledge management system:
Quintana Fundora (2006), citing Maier and Remus (2002), affirms that there is a strong dependence between knowledge management and process management. On the one hand, knowledge is generated and transmitted within business processes, on the other hand, knowledge and learning is the key element for the implementation of a continuous improvement process in process management.
Knowledge management processes
The knowledge management process has been defined and analyzed differently by various authors. According to Ricardo Alonso (2006), knowledge can be described as information in a specific context, which provides value and enables the person responsible to act. Making good use of knowledge has always been an important prerequisite for successful businesses. All companies acquire, create, store, distribute and use knowledge, although these "knowledge processing" activities are not necessarily explicitly managed.
In carrying out this work, the processes defined in the ARIS Method Manual, Architecture of integrated Information Systems (IDS Scheer AG, 2003) are considered, which are discussed below:
The knowledge management process is basically made up of the acquisition, presentation, transfer, use and elimination of knowledge, as shown in figure 3, the knowledge process.
- Knowledge Acquisition: Knowledge can be acquired externally, eg from research institutes or by hiring experts, and can be created and developed internally, for example, in research and development or by obtaining experience from the operation of a process. Because knowledge can quickly become outdated, it will always need to be improved and updated.
- Presentation of Knowledge: To be useful to others, knowledge needs to be documented, structured and related to other knowledge. It is also important to document the meta-structure of knowledge, for example: what type of knowledge is available, how it is structured and how it can be consulted in a certain subject.
- Knowledge Transfer: Before being applied, knowledge needs to be brought to the people who need it. Documented knowledge can be directly transmitted through email, file transfer, or distribution of paper documents. Another possibility is the provision of knowledge in a way that users of this knowledge can actively access it, Example: in a library or on an intranet. In this case, the knowledge transfer is only complete when the knowledge user searches and finds the required knowledge. To access human knowledge that is not explicitly documented, the respective knowledge holders need to be found and contacted.
- Knowledge utilization: This is the purpose of knowledge processing - to use knowledge to carry out, support and improve activities that provide added value.
- Elimination of Knowledge: The knowledge that is outdated or that has become irrelevant needs to be identified, erased from the active corporate memory and filed.
These knowledge processing functions are not usually separate activities, but most of them are, or should be, integral parts of existing business processes.
In Table 1 Knowledge management processes by different authors, some criteria given by different authors of the knowledge management processes compiled by Quintana Fundora (2006) are shown.
Table 1. Knowledge Management Processes by different authors
Source: Quintana Fundora, Y (2006).
Knowledge management is aimed at improving and supporting knowledge processing in the company, therefore it is involved with the development, support, control and improvement of strategies, processes, organization and technologies for knowledge processing, this is shown in Figure 4. Knowledge management and knowledge processes.
Figure 4. Knowledge management and knowledge processes.
Manual of the ARIS method (2003)
Figure 5 Knowledge management table shows the structure of Knowledge Management in its definition, management and operation of knowledge processes. This structure has been developed on the basis of an architecture for process-oriented information systems, which consists of the following four levels.
Figure 5. Knowledge management table
Source: ARIS method manual (2003)
1. Knowledge process design: At the first level, the company's knowledge processes are defined. Since knowledge processing normally takes place in the company's normal business processes, it is necessary to analyze business processes with respect to knowledge processing and redesign them in order to improve the way in which knowledge is created, presented, transferred and used in business processes. In addition to this, it may also be necessary to define specific knowledge management processes, such as the process for the protection of certain publications, summarizing the relevant information and distributing it to those who need it.The term knowledge process is used to refer to specific knowledge management processes and normal knowledge-intensive business processes, when they are similar in terms of knowledge processing.
Knowledge process design requires methods to map and analyze knowledge processing. The term "Redesign of the knowledge process" refers to comprehensive projects to fundamentally change the way knowledge is processed. These topics are discussed later. The design created at level 1 defines the processes, structures and tasks for levels 2 to 4.
2. Knowledge Process Management: The tasks of managing the implemented knowledge processes can be found at the second level. These tasks include the operation of the specific knowledge processes defined in level 1, as well as the control and monitoring of the processing. The variables to be monitored are defined during the design of the knowledge processes (level 1). For example, it could be useful to record the number of unsuccessful searches for information and to analyze the reasons for not finding the desired pieces of information.
When such problems are identified, an improvement cycle is activated, in which the design of the knowledge process at level 1 is changed.
3. Control of the knowledge process: The operation of the knowledge processes takes place at levels 3 and 4. Level 3 comprises those activities that are not related to the current knowledge content, such as: topics, keywords or areas of expertise. This meta-information is required for the distribution, exchange, search and access to knowledge.
4. Application of the knowledge process: Activities at this level are related to current knowledge content. They include the creation of new knowledge, the documentation of knowledge, its application, etc.
8 Other approaches
For his part, for Pavez (2000) cited by Quintana Fundora (2006), the Knowledge Management process should be understood as the sub-processes necessary for the development of solutions aimed at generating knowledge bases of value for the organization.
The process presented in Figure 6 Knowledge processes represents the chain of adding value to each of the existing instances of knowledge in the organization. It should be noted that the Knowledge Management process focuses on the concept of value generation associated with the business, which will help to discard the instances of knowledge that are not relevant.
• Detect: It is the process of locating cognitive and active models (thought and action) of value for the organization, which lies in people. They are, according to their cognitive capacities (mental models, systemic vision, etc.), who determine the new sources of action knowledge.
• Select: It is the process of evaluation and choice of the model around a criterion of interest. The criteria can be based on organizational, communal or individual criteria, which will be divided into three main groups: Interest, Practice and Action.
• Organize: It is the process of storing the explicit representation of the model in a structured way.
• Filter: Once the source is organized, it can be accessed through automated queries around search engines. Searches will be based on simple and complex access structures, such as knowledge maps, knowledge portals, or smart agents.
• Present: The results obtained from the filtering process must be presented to people or machines. If they are people, the interfaces must be designed to cover the wide range of human understanding. In the event that communication takes place between machines, the interfaces must meet all the conditions of a protocol or communication interface.
• Use: The use of knowledge resides in the act of applying it to the problem to be solved. According to this action, it is possible to evaluate the utility of the knowledge source through a feedback activity.
On the process described above, it is possible to develop the concept of Knowledge Management project, which aims to generate instances that reflect in a practical way each of the stages of the process.
Knowledge Management Projects
Some types of projects can be cataloged within the classes listed below:
• Capture and reuse structured knowledge: This type of project recognizes that knowledge is embedded in the output components of an organization, such as product design, proposals, reports, implementation procedures, software code, among others.
• Capture and share lessons learned from practice: This type of project captures the knowledge generated by experience, which can be adapted by a user for use in a new context.
• Identify sources and networks of experience: This type of project tries to capture and develop the contained knowledge, allowing to better visualize and access the expertise, facilitating the connection between the people who possess the knowledge and those who need it.
• Structuring and mapping knowledge needs to improve performance: This type of project aims to support efforts in the development of new products or the redesign of processes, making explicit the necessary knowledge for a particular stage of an initiative.
• Measure and manage the economic value of knowledge: This type of project recognizes that assets such as patents, copyrights, software licenses and customer databases, create both income and costs for the organization, so they are oriented to manage them more judiciously.
• Synthesize and share knowledge from external sources: This type of project tries to take advantage of external sources of information and knowledge, providing a context for the large volume available (Universities).
It is important to highlight that the different projects described above agree on an objective business vision: the aggregation of value around the needs of the organization.
According to (Wiig, 1997), knowledge management seen as a process is basically made up of the generation, codification, transfer and use of knowledge within the company.
a) Knowledge generation: studies the processes of acquiring external knowledge and creating it in organizations, putting into action the knowledge possessed by people (Bueno, 2002).
b) Coding, storage or integration of knowledge: making organizational knowledge available to everyone, either in writing or by locating the person who concentrates it.
c) Knowledge transfer: analyzes the spaces for the exchange of knowledge and the technical processes or platforms that make it possible (Bueno, 2002). This phase can be carried out through formal and / or informal communication mechanisms.
d) Use of knowledge: the application of recently acquired knowledge in the routine activities of the company.
The generation and transfer of knowledge are processes that have a greater amount of tacit knowledge. Both in the coding stage and in the utilization stage, it is observed how tacit knowledge is converted into explicit knowledge for the understanding and disposition of it by all the members of the company. Bueno (2002) points out that the fundamental aspects of Knowledge Management are the creation and distribution of knowledge.
Another approach is that of Plaz Landaeta, R (2004) who defines 4 dimensions for knowledge processes (see Figure 7 Knowledge cycle and Figure 8 Knowledge processes and interfaces)
• The «Intelligence» dimension is associated with the processes of creating new knowledge within the organization, the identification, in internal and external sources, of useful and relevant knowledge and the capture of this knowledge for the creation of the corporate knowledge memory. as an expression of explicit coded knowledge. In this phase of the cycle, the identification of the sources of tacit knowledge available within and outside the organization (expert bases) are also contemplated.
• The «Distribution» dimension is linked to the treatment, coding and transmission mechanisms that facilitate the access, transfer and dissemination of the knowledge available in the organization. Codified knowledge is converted into information for the consumer. A certain encoded information can evoke different considerations depending on the receiver of said information. In this sense, the information has no context and it is very important to provide it with an appropriate taxonomy to guide its use.
• The «Learning» dimension is related to the mechanisms of assimilation and internalization of the information that is communicated, transmitted and shared either tacitly or explicitly. That is why it is not possible to speak of knowledge transfer without intrinsically occurring a learning process at the level of the individual and also at the level of the organization. Absorbing and assimilating knowledge at the level of the individual supposes a structure of mental models that facilitate the compression of said information for its application to specific situations and problems. In this sense, association models allow knowledge to be transferred from one context to another in order to enhance and reuse them.
• The «Renewal» dimension is organized through the processes of renewal and creation of new knowledge from existing knowledge, practical experiences and lessons learned. The renewal of knowledge is tied to the processes of replication of the same that lead to its reuse in other contexts and that are translated in turn lead to improvements.
The tools and technologies in Knowledge
Management Knowledge Management requires tools that support this process, making possible the flow of information between the different agents that make up a working group, the selection and implementation of technological tools For GC, it is of utmost importance.
For its part, technology is the one that propagates and induces greater awareness in our days about the need to «learn to learn» and transmit and apply what is known to differentiate itself from the competition, and it is also technology that facilitates construction In short, dynamic Knowledge Management models that have spread so strongly in countries with the highest economic and social development. However, only man is capable of transforming data into information and information into knowledge. There is no doubt about its extraordinary role as a facilitator (as well as a beneficiary) in the generation of knowledge. There are countless tools to facilitate knowledge management. In this work, special emphasis will be placed on knowledge maps.
Knowledge Maps (K-Maps)
When talking about Knowledge Management in a company or organization, the first step to take, as evident as it may seem, is the identification of the knowledge that resides within it as well as its characteristics or identifying elements.
The final result of this identification of Knowledge will be the obtaining of the Knowledge Map of the organization, the name given to the document in which all the knowledge detected will be collected, as well as a description of its content and its main characteristics.
Quintana Fundora (2006) states that a knowledge map is an updated map that indicates what existing knowledge is and where it is found, but that it does not contain the same knowledge, only the reference of where to find it, configuring itself as a guide. It is like the yellow pages of knowledge. The development of a knowledge map involves locating the knowledge that is important to the organization and, subsequently, publishing lists or representations that show where to find it.
According to Adela d'Alòs-Moner (2003), the knowledge maps allow us to have a graphic vision of the organization's situation in relation to its knowledge, understood as part of its intellectual capital.
For Bueno, E (2003), the knowledge map is a set of information that can be formalized and can be easily assimilated, that is, become knowledge. It is a virtual diagram, with a network structure, as a graphical representation close to that of neural networks that allows relevant information to be found quickly and efficiently for decision-making and problem solving. In addition, it is a useful directory that describes a series of specialized information categories related to a certain internal logic, indicating where it is in its state, how it can be obtained and what its value and usefulness are.
The map can refer to people, institutions, documents in any medium and own or external databases. For Vail (1999), a knowledge map is the visual exposition of information captured through text, graphics, models or numbers, as well as the existing relationships within said information.
For Seemann and Cohen (1997), the knowledge maps show where to find important sources of knowledge in the organization, pointing to repositories of important documents or to experts in some matter. On the other hand, the use of document repositories is more beneficial if they are built following the principles of knowledge maps.
A document repository is a "store" of documents that contain knowledge. According to Grover and Davenport (2001), repositories usually contain a specific type of knowledge for a specific function or business process. The objective is to capture the knowledge so that later many other members of the company can have access to that knowledge. With document repositories, knowledge sharing in space and time increases, especially if the repositories are electronic and accessed through the company intranet.
Characteristics of the knowledge maps
It is characterized by the following attributes:
• It constitutes the compilation of the knowledge that is available in a unit / company.
• Enumeration of explicit and documented knowledge, and also tacit knowledge that relevant people have.
• Prioritized and grouped knowledge.
• The map also indicates how to get to this relevant knowledge: which people have it, what support is it on, etc.
• It allows to identify knowledge gaps.
The knowledge map aims to be the design and maintenance tool for the knowledge management program.
Sources of the knowledge map
The sources of knowledge can be:
• Structured, such as data from an internal database or reports from external providers.
• Unstructured information in different documents and types of support.
• Tacit knowledge located in the mind of an expert.
Utilities of the Knowledge Map
• Facilitates the concentration of resources in the knowledge creation processes.
• Prevents people from dedicating themselves to creating knowledge that already exists.
• Allows to locate the best source / expert to get a knowledge.
• The comparison of the necessary knowledge with the existing one allows to identify:
o Knowledge needs. The knowledge to be unlearned.
o Identification of the areas and processes where the implementation of a knowledge management initiative will provide more value to the organization.
• It is the basis for the diagnosis of the identified knowledge management and the search for improvement actions.
• Immediate application to other processes: information management, intranet, quality management, etc.
• Indicates where communities and centers of interest or practice can be established.
• Formalization and organization of all knowledge inventories.
• Perception of the relationships between knowledge.
• Efficient navigation in the inventory of knowledge.
• Promotion of socialization / outsourcing by connecting experts with knowledge explorers.
In summary, the results of a knowledge map are
- The generation of knowledge.
- The presentation
- The transfer and exchange of knowledge.
- The integration of this knowledge in the organization and a means to reach the "learning organization".
Tools for creating K-Maps
The tools provide an important help when designing knowledge maps. Simple tools, such as Microsoft's Visio, which is software with Flowchart utilities, up to adaptations of business process model tools or, of course, concept maps such as MindMapper. Other software such as InfoRapid KnowledgeMap, Knowledge Manager, IHMC CmapTools-Concept Map, FreeMind.
Choice of software platform for repositories
Once the knowledge is identified, tools are needed to help us collect, as much as possible, for its future use. After determining the need to create an Institutional Repository, it is necessary to plan what the service offers, and carefully examine the available systems to choose the one that suits the needs.
Library management needs to balance the need for innovation in digital archive management with available resources and budget constraints. The Institutional Repository platforms have their own strong points and are constantly changing, among the most used are: Archimede, Bepress, CDSware, CONTENTdm, DSpace, EPrints, Fedora, Greenstone, Open Repository, among others.
The most important form of choice is to visit other initiatives of online institutional repositories to check the scope, quality and user-friendliness.
The fundamental elements of each of the software platforms to create Institutional Repositories previously referred to and consulted, are detailed below:
Archimede
The Archimede software platform, developed by the University of Laval library, is open source. It was developed from a multilingual perspective, it offers an interface in English, French and Spanish. It is focused on internationalization, the software interface is independent and is not within the code, which allows developing additional languages and specific interfaces without recoding the software itself. It allows users to switch from one language to another "anytime, anywhere" while searching for and finding content.
It is available in free, open source software provided by the GNU, general public license.
Features:
Inspired by the DSpace model using communities and content collections.
The search engine is based on the open source Lucene, using LIUS (Lucene Index Update and Search), a custom framework developed by the Laval library staff.
OAI compliant.
Use a Dublin Core metadata set.
Technical support: http://sourceforge.net/projects/archimede/
Bepress
The Bepress software platform, developed by the Berkeley Electronic Press, is proprietary software for creating and hosting customer repositories. Cost includes software, client deployment, infrastructure, practices, server, maintenance, remote support, technical support, and software updates.
It is available in commercial software, license fees, and subscription fees. The cost is related to the size of the repository and its use. Includes complete practices, documentation, technical support, customer service, and software updates.
Features:
Offers EdiKit client software to add content to the repository.
OAI compliant
Export XML data
Template customization
Full-text search
Technical support: Available by paying software license.
CDSware
The CDSware (CERN Document Server Software) software platform, developed by the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN), located in Geneva; It is an open source software, designed to run an electronic pre-print server, online library catalog or document system on the web.
It is available in free open source software distributed by the GNU General Public.
Features:
OAI
MARC 21 standard metadata compliant
Full text search
Database: MySQL
Extensibility: available in API
Powerful search engine with Google
User customization, including document trash and email notification alerts
Technical support:
Support by free e-mail at [email protected] or by mailing list: [email protected]
Paid technical support also available.
CONTENTdm
Digital Collection Management Software by DiMeMa, provides tools from the organization and direction to the publication and search of digital collections on the Internet. CONTENTdm also offers tools to archive collections of any size.
It is available in commercial software (the price depends on the size of the collection). Free 60-day trial availability.
Features:
All kinds of accepted content.
OAI compliant.
Dublin Core metadata.
XML data export.
Z39.50 compatible.
Multiple Collection Search
Automatic adding of collections to WorldCat.
The product includes several components: CON-TENTdm Software Acquisition Station server (can be copied and installed on more than 50 Windows machines to distribute its use), search for clients and templates on the web, PowerPoint plug-in.
DSpace
DSpace is a digital library system, jointly developed by MIT Libraries and Hewlett Packard Labs; designed to capture, store, order, preserve and redistribute the intellectual and research production of a University in digital format. It is free open source software. Distributed by BSD open source license.
Characteristics:
All kinds of accepted content.
Dublin Core metadata standard
Customizable web interface
OAI compliant.
Workflow process for content submission.
Import / export capabilities.
Decentralized shipping process.
Extensible for Java API.
Full text search using Lucene or Google.
Database: PostgreSQL, or SQL database that supports transactions such as Oracle, MySQL.
Technical support: DSpace-Tech mailing list for technical questions comments.
EPrints
GNU EPrints software, developed at the University of Southampton; It is free open source software, designed to create an institutional repository of electronic publishing for academic research, but can be used for other purposes.
Features:
Any type of accepted content.
You can use any metadata schema.
Web based interface.
Features of the workflow: the content goes through a moderation process for approval, rejection, or another author for review.
MySQL database.
Extensible through API using the Perl programming language.
Full-text search.
RSS production.
Technical support:
EPrints-tech mailing list: http://software.eprints.org/maillist.php
General announcements and “underground” comments also available at http://software.eprints.org/maillist.php.
EPrints wiki: http://wiki.eprints.org/w/
Fedora
The Flexible Extensible Digital Object Repository (Fedora) software, jointly developed by the University of Virginia and Cornell University; it is free open source software; It is used to create interoperable digital libraries based on the web, institutional repositories and other information management systems. It shows how you can organize a digitally distributed library architecture using web-based technologies, including XML and Web services.
It is available in the Fedora Phase delivery, distributed under the open source Mozilla license.
Features:
Any type of accepted content.
Dublin Core metadata.
OAI compliant.
Data provisioning and XML storage.
Extensibility: API for management, access, web services.
Content versions.
Migration utility.
Technical support: Free online support via
Greenstone mailing list Greenstone
software developed by the New Zealand Digital Library project at the University of Waikato; it is open source, multi-lingual software; in order to create and distribute digital library collections.
It is currently developed and distributed in collaboration with UNESCO and the NGO Human Info, under the terms and conditions of the GNU General Public License.
Features:
Multilingual: the four main languages are English, French, Spanish and Russian. More than 25 additional language interfaces available.
Includes a collection of pre-creation in demo version.
It offers an "Export to CDROM" feature.
Technical Support: Online Support, Technical Email List, General User Comment List, Business Support is available for a fee.
Open Repository
Open Repository is a new offering from BioMed Central that provides a commercial software service to create Institutional Repositories. Based on the software
DSpace offers multiple editions with different levels of support and service. It is available in commercial services and currently three editions are offered: Standard, Silver and Gold.
Features:
Wide variety of content formats and conversion utility for
OAI-based PDF Metadata.
Bibliography:
• (without author) Knowledge management tools. Available at: www.gestiondelconocimiento.com
• Allweyer, T. (2003) ARIS Methods Manual
• Andreu, R. and Sieber, S. (1999). “Knowledge and Learning Management. Industrial economy". (Accessed May, 2006).
• Argyris, C. and Schön, D. (1978): Organizational Learning: A Theory of Action Perspective. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley.
• Berrocal, F and Pereda Marín, S. Training and knowledge management Complutense Magazine of Education. Vol. 12 No. 2 (2001) 639-656. ISSN: 1130-2496. Complutense University of Madrid.
• Bierley, P. and Chakrabarti, A. (1996): Generic Knowledge Strategies in the US Pharmaceutical Industry. Strategic Management Journal, vol. 17 (winter special issue), p. 123-135.
• Bontis, N. (1999a): Managing an Organizational Learning System by Aligning Stocks and Flows of Knowledge: an Empirical Examination of Intellectual Capital and Knowledge. Unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Western Ontario.
• Bontis, N. (1999b): Managing Organizational Knowledge by Diagnosing Intellectual Capital: Framing and Advancing the State of the Field. International Journal of Technology Management, vol. 18, no. 5 and 6, pp. 433-462.
• Bueno, E (2003) Main focuses and trends in Knowledge Management.. Available at: (www.madrimasd.org/informacionidi/indicadores/intelectual/descripcion)
• Bueno, E. (2000) “The Age of Information, Knowledge and Learning”, Working document of the plenary session of the Intelec Club, may.
• Well, E. (2002a). Main focuses on Knowledge Management and trends. In R. Hernández (ed): "Knowledge Management: Theoretical developments and applications". Cáceres: Ediciones La Coria, Xavier de Salas Foundation.
• Bueno, E. (2002b): The knowledge society: a new learning space for people and organizations, in The Knowledge Society, Monograph of the Valencian Journal of Autonomous Studies, Presidency of the Generalitat Valenciana, Valencia.
• D'Alòs-Moner, A. The information professional, v. 12, n. 4, July-August 2003.
• Davenport, TH and Prusak, L. (1998): Working Knowledge. How Organizations Manage What They Know. Hardvard Business School Press. Boston, Massachusetts.
• Ditzel, Benjamin (2005) Development of a knowledge management model for a university department. Thesis in option to the title of Doctor of Science. Technological Campus of the University of Navarra. Higher School of Engineers of San Sebastián.
• Dogson, M. (1993): Organizational Learning: A Review of Some Literatures. Organization Studies, vol.14, nº3, pp. 375-394.
• Grant, RM (1996a): Prospering in Dynamically-Competitive Enviroments: Organizational Capability as Knowledge Integration. Organization Science, vol. 7, nº4, July / August, pgs. 375-387.
• Grant, RM (1996b): Toward a Knowledge-Based Theory of the Firm. Strategic Management Journal, vol. 17 (winter special issue), p. 109-122.
• Grant, RM (1997): The Knowledge-Based View of the Firm: Implications for Management Practice. Long Range Planning, vol.30, no. 3, pp. 450-454.
• Grover, V. and Davenport, TH (2001): “General Perspectives on Knowledge Management: Fostering a Research Agenda”, Journal of Management Information Systems, vol. 18, nº1
• Heisig, P. (2001) Business Process Oriented Knowledge Management - Methoden zur Verknüpfung von Wissensmanagement und Geschäftsprozessmanagement. In 1. Konferenz Professionelles Wissensmanagement. Baden-Baden: Fraunhofer IPK Berlin.
• Kogut, B. and Zander, U. (1992): Knowledge of the Firm, Combinative Capabilities, and the Replication of Technology. Organization Science, pgs. 383-397.
• Maier, R. & Remus, U. (2002). Defining Process-oriented Knowledge Management Strategies. Knowledge and Process Management, 9, Nr. 2, pgs. 103–118.
• Matusik, SF and Hill, CW (1998). The Utilization of contingent work, knowledge Creation, and competitive advantage. Academy of Management Review. Vol. 23, no.4, pp. 680-697.
• Nonaka, I. (1991): The Knowledge Creating Company. Hardvard Business Review, November./December, pp. 96-104.
• Nonaka, I. (1994): A Dynamic Theory of Organizational Knowledge Creation. Organization Science, vol.5, nº1, Febrary, pp. 14-37.
• Nonaka, I. and Takeuchi, H. (1995): The Knowledge Creating Company. Oxford University Press, New York.
• Pavez Salazar, A (2000). Implementation model of Knowledge Management and Information Technologies for the Generation of Competitive Advantages. Thesis in option to the title of Doctor of Sciences. Valparaíso.
• Petrides, LA & Nodine, TR (2003) Knowledge Management in Education: Defining the Landscape. Half Moon Bay, California, March Institute for the Study of Knowledge Management in Education
• Petrides, LA & Nodine, TR (2003) Knowledge Management in Education: Defining the Landscape. Half Moon Bay, California, March Institute for the Study of Knowledge Management in Education.
• Plaz Landaeta, R (2004). Knowledge management: an integrative vision of organizational learning.. Available at: http://www.madrimasd.org/revista/revista18/tribuna/tribuna2.asp#principio#principio
• Prusak, L. (1996). "The Knowledge advantage". Strategy & Leadership. March-April p.6-8.
• Quintana Fundora, Y (2006). Knowledge management in the Industrial Engineering degree. Operative administration. Thesis in option to the title of Master of Science. Faculty of Industrial Economics. Matanzas University. Cuba.
• Ricardo Alonso, A (2006). Knowledge Management in the Industrial Engineering career. Quality management. Thesis in option to the title of Master of Science. Faculty of Industrial Economics. Matanzas University. Cuba.
• Savage, Ch. (1991). "Presentation at DECWORLD, The International Trade show for Digital Equipment Corporation", Boston.
• Schreiber, G. et al. (2000) Knowledge Engineering and Management: The Common-KADS Methodology. London: MIT Press.
• Seemann, P. and Cohen, D. (1997): “The Geography of Knowledge: From Knowledge Maps to the Knowledge Atlas”, Knowledge and Process Management, vol. 4, no. 4.
• Spender, JC and Grant, RM (1996). Knowledge and the firm. Strategic Management Journal. Vol. 17 (Winter Special Issue).
• Spender, JC (1996): Making Knowledge the Basis of a Dynamic Theory of the Firm. Staretgic Management Journal, vol. 17 (winter special issue), p. 45-62.
• Vail, EF (1999): “Mapping Organizational Knowledge: Bridging the business-IT communication gap”, Knowledge Management Review, vol. 2, nº8.
• Wiig, KM, “Integrating Intellectual Capital and Knowledge Management, Long Range Planning, Vol. 30, no. 3, June 1997.
• Zapata Cantú, L (2004). The Determinants of Knowledge Generation and Transfer in Small and Medium-sized Enterprises in the Information Technology Sector of Barcelona. Thesis in option to the title of Doctor of Science. Faculty of Economic and Business Sciences of the Department of Business Economics. Bellaterra.
