Currently we have tools to enhance the image and achieve a positive effect in the interaction with other people, from the first impression to a performance consistent with it. The image is a resource that we must know and use in order to obtain optimal results. Few people know the importance of image and benefit from what they project to the outside world. Our image is the external manifestation of what we are on an internal level, of our values and beliefs. All this conception of the image, seen from the perspective of the sensory transmission of human beings, can be extrapolated and used in the business world. If we know and master the impression that is formed in human thought, when it first receives an image, be it of another person, clothes, places, etc.we can regulate it depending on whether it matches what we really are or want to become. Within the business world, specifically, in hotel facilities, the image that a tourist perceives will mark a high percentage of their satisfaction measurement. The memory of the stay will be recorded in your mind as flashes that will be accompanied by memories of smells and flavors perceived during your accommodation. This memory will tip the balance of decision before the uncertainty of returning to the hotel facility again or not.The memory of the stay will be recorded in your mind as flashes that will be accompanied by memories of smells and flavors perceived during your accommodation. This memory will tip the balance of decision before the uncertainty of returning to the hotel facility again or not.The memory of the stay will be recorded in your mind as flashes that will be accompanied by memories of smells and flavors perceived during your accommodation. This memory will tip the balance of decision before the uncertainty of returning to the hotel facility again or not.
To obtain long-term results, the image constitutes a variable of commercialization, obtaining future income and positioning in the territorial market, key to success in this sector.
The image of hotels as a fundamental determinant of tourist buying behavior is a variable that lacks adequate management in Cuba. For this reason we propose to address aspects that allow the development of a theoretical framework that contributes to establishing a critical analysis of the place and role of the business image within strategic management.
The tourism sector as a factor of national development.
Tourism (Luque, 2009) is a social phenomenon that arises as a consequence of the degree of development that humanity has acquired over time. It has its origin (Jiménez and Cruz, 2009) in progressive industrialization, in urban agglomerations and in the psychology of daily living. Its evolution has been greatly favored by the development of communications and transportation, by the increase in the standard of living of society, by the availability of free time and by the gradual conquest of paid vacations (Acerenza, 1990; Dann et. al., 1988; Villalba, 1993; Coronado, 1993; Lee and Crompton, 1992; OMT, 1998; Pearce, 1994; Pedreño and Monfort, 1996; Dredge, 1999; Lee, 2001; Buhalis, 2000; Soler, 2004).
We refer the etymological origin of tourism to the French word tour, which in turn comes from the primitive Latin verb tornare or the noun tornus, whose connotations would be synonymous with “circular travel”.
From an economic point of view, we can define tourism as the business of providing and marketing services and facilities for the pleasure of travelers, therefore, the concept of tourism is directly related to governments, carriers, accommodation, restaurants and industries of entertainment, and indirectly, with all industry and businesses in the world.
The fundamental element of tourism is to put the individual in direct contact with their natural environment. The purpose of the tourist activity is to provide the infrastructure, the means and the facilities for its fulfillment. Regarding the definition of tourist, the League of Nations (1937), under a statistical criterion, it defines as a tourist: "any person who travels for twenty-four hours or more, through any other country, other than their habitual residence."
Tourism has emerged in many countries and regions as an important engine of economic growth and social transformation. Faced with the classic conceptions of growth models based on industrialization, tourism outsourcing, despite the misgivings and even the disbelief of the experts, stands as a solid way of taking advantage of the promotion of the resources of an economic system. Strategies to promote economic growth usually involve investment in the agricultural, industrial or service sectors of the economy to improve labor productivity. Thus arise the two issues to take into account in economic growth. Firstly, where to obtain funds for investment, secondly, what specific projects are the most appropriate.
In the tourist activity, various disciplines converge that generate transdisciplinary work teams, such as the environment, urban planning, health, legislation, infrastructure, etc., which together with the specifications of the tourist event, hotels, gastronomy, transportation, recreation, form a all to be interpreted and evaluated appropriately when defining the tourism development model to be followed. This must be inserted and harmonized with the city, zone or region model as a whole, the only way to enable the interrelation of all the sectors that intervene with the common purpose of achieving the development of the community.
Through a correct local economic development plan, the tourist activity must be able to promote the development of all the sectors of the town and that equally, the action of these sectors contributes to the development of the tourist activity and the community in general.
There are many companies related to tourism directly or indirectly, such as leisure (cinemas, discos, shows), hotel equipment companies, laundries, travel articles, specialized publications, furniture producers, agriculture, construction. Tourism constitutes a source of liquid income on a large scale that is used to develop parallel economic activities and to support it, and which in turn take advantage of this economic injection to produce for other sectors.
International tourism activity generates the creation of jobs through two fundamental routes:
- Direct route: Increase in accommodation places, opening of restaurants, increase in means of transport, etc. Indirect route: Originated by the need to expand sectors that in turn provide services to the tourist productive sectors.
In summary, we can say that tourism contributes important income to the balance of payments, generates jobs, can influence the reactivation of other branches of the national economy such as agriculture, the food industry, light, construction, communications, computing and transport, although we must consider that it has a high vulnerability to external factors. Undoubtedly, to mitigate these weaknesses, it will be necessary to use the most appropriate management techniques, considering the requirements and specificities of the tourism sector.
Image definition
For most people, speaking of the image implies “a mental representation of anything that is not actually found in the senses; reliving or imitating a sensitive experience along with collateral feelings; the memory or imagination reproduction of sensations of sight, touch, hearing, such as visual, tactile or auditory images; a vision product of fantasy; in general a concept an idea. " (Zurita. 2006).
This definition is associated, fundamentally with the visual. It refers to sensory images that are those that come through photography, logos, press, brochurs and others.
At present, the word image is used to define a large number of phenomena. This is mainly due to the polysemy of the term, we can refer to visual, graphic, material, mental, company, brand and corporate images.
Within the business world, subjects receive information about the organization from various sources: the organization itself through its conduct and its communicative action and that from the environment. Once it reaches the individual, he will process it together with the one he already has and thus, a mental structure will be formed in memory, generating an image of that organization.
That is, individuals, based on past experiences, carry out a simplifying but significant activity between the new information and the existing one, granting organizations a set of characteristics or attributes by means of which they will identify them. These simplified organizational schemes, of a cognitive nature, will be incorporated into people's memory and are retrieved when individuals need them to recognize, identify and differentiate one organization from another.
These meaningful schemas are, therefore, cognitive mental structures, since through them we identify, recognize and differentiate organizations.
The image is not what the organization believes about itself but what the public believes about the organization, as well as its brands and services, all based on their experience and observation. The question lies then, in the way to orient or guide the perception of the public so that the image that is formed by itself is related to the identity of the organization. Some of the reasons for caring for the image of the organization, according to Joan Costa (2003) are: To highlight the true identity of the organization, convey notoriety and prestige, reflect the true importance and dimension of the organization, achieve a favorable public opinion, organize the future of the organization. In summary,it is about positioning the organization in the minds of the chosen public in the same way that a product is inserted in a given market.
This process of the formation of the corporate image can be observed, as a kind of communication process model related to the generation, circulation and consumption of information, linked to the field of organizations, and in which the specific role is assumed by the different audiences, since the image of an organization is generated in them.
Conceptualization of the company image
Within the most recognized studies related to company image, it is tended to consider that this is a concept that is formed through the reasoned and emotional interpretation of the consumer and is a consequence of the combination of two components that are closely interrelated: evaluations perceptual / cognitive, which refer to the beliefs and knowledge that individuals have about the object through identifying attributes, and affective evaluations, which correspond to emotional feelings towards said object (Baloglu and Brinberg, 1997; Walmsley and Young, 1998; Baloglu and McCleary, 1999; San Martín 2005; Beerli et al., 2008). To this analysis Costa (2004) adds a third element,the behavioral or conative where there is a predisposition to act in a certain way directly related to the image.
The image of a company arises as a term from the application to the business context of the concept of mental image. The company image denotes a space where the mental image acquires a particular importance. Until now, the mental image had been the center of the link between the environment and the individual, and it has served the latter to adapt and interact appropriately with their environment. The company image gives a new perspective to the role that the mental image can play in the business sphere, since it is seen not as an instrument of the individual, but as an essential tool for the company, of which it can even reach depend on their permanence in the market. It could be said that the mental image acquires particular significance in this context,based on the utilitarian character that is given to it by the managers of the companies, who have begun to see in it the way to locate themselves in the market, stay in it and influence the behaviors of the subjects of the different segments, according to the needs of these.
The company needs to manage its global image, but it must first determine which attributes are relevant for each target audience to subsequently act on modulating factors, public receptors and elements that affect the offer (Barich and Srinivasan, 1993; Caruso, 2004).
The image of a company is not only made up of the visual aspects of the brand, consisting of the logo, the symbol, the color; typographic style; Product design; advertising, promotion; internal symbology; company stationery. It is also composed of the dynamics of interpersonal relationships; history, service provision, products. Every company has a corporate image in the minds of the people who know it, however, each person sees the company differently. (Zurita. 2006).
For the formation of the institutional image, the subjects receive the information of the organization from various sources: the organization itself through its conduct and its communicative action and that from the environment. Once it reaches the individual, he will process it together with the one he already has and thus, a mental structure will be formed in the memory, that is, an image of it will be generated.
The image of a hotel facility is an abstract construction based on the reality of the environment, the perceptions of tourists, their experiences, as well as the action of the media on public opinion. Therefore the image of the tourist product constitutes a key element in the degree of tourist satisfaction. On the other hand, the image of a hotel facility is an element of great relevance for the success of the company, despite the fact that its treatment in the literature has been reduced, in favor of other approaches such as quality (Chirino, 2009).
Aspects why image is important for the company are summarized below (Croy, 2004; Tasci, 2007):
- Creation of expectations Marketing strategy and market segmentation Form of consumption Effects on potential markets Satisfaction Communication with target audiences Selection of destination or hotel
The tourist image of a Hotel in question is the differentiating element with respect to the others. It is a tangible representation, it must be mixed with the culture of the organization, with the interpersonal relationships that are formed in the sphere of services, between the tourist and the hotel staff, which results in a mental representation of the hotel that the tourist will take with him.
Cognitive perceptual component of the image
Every image has an abstraction. The mental image is a psychological synthesis of certain perceptions, situations, influences, experiences and experiences of the public about an institution (Zurita, 2006), figurative representation of an original model, something pre-existing, a reality that rides between the real, copied model, and the fictitious, representation. Reynolds and Guttman (1984) define the image as a network of meanings stored in memory. It cannot be said that something exists without an abstraction even if it is an ineffable situation.
The concept of mental image, studied by psychology in its new aspect since the seventies, starts from the study of the cognitive system, the compression of the thought perceptions of individuals. Perception is configured through two phases widely studied by cognitive psychology, sensation and interpretation (Ballesteros, 2000; Díaz 2003). Perception as a grouping of the different stimuli emitted by the information transmitting channels, visual or not, and the choice of a variable number of discriminating attributes, by the studied public, in a sequential process of information reception, analysis, understanding and selection of relevant elements (Kotler, 2000; Díaz, 2003; Wai-Ching et al., 2005).
If we analyze what Calviño (1999) proposed, it is understood that he supports all his analysis in focusing the image as a product of the mental representations where the analyzed object, the individual psychological characteristics and the influences of the surrounding environment converge.
In this study, it is essential to highlight that if it starts from an economic analysis, it does not refer to the corporate image of a company as the material figure that that company represents or to its visual memory, but to the image generated by its content. In the construction of this image other elements converge such as the general and specific context, previous experiences with the organization and all the information about it. The act of reflecting therefore has an immediately certain content that is called «essence of the image» (González et al., 2008).
Affective Component:
The affective component provides elements that define the image as a set of feelings and individual impressions about a place, a company, a brand, an installation (Pike and Ryan, 2004; San Martín, 2005). Demonstrating in the responses or feelings of affectivity that individuals manifest towards places (companies, brands). If a comparison is made between cognitive and affective evaluations, one can better understand how people value objects. The affective component is the emotional response that individuals express to it (Beerli et al., 2008). The image is very emotional, therefore it becomes a reflection of our emotions, it is a kind of expansion of consciousness.
The cognitive and affective components of the image are related to each other. Carrying out a theoretical analysis, there seems to be a certain consensus, in the literature, of the antecedent role of the cognitive component over the affective one. In such a way that the evaluative responses of the consumer (Affective Image) are a function of their knowledge of the objects (Cognitive Image) (Stern and Krakover, 1993; San Martín, 2005; Gustavsson et al., 2006). Some recent studies tend to consider that the image is a concept that is formed through the reasoned (cognitive) and emotional (affective) interpretation of the consumer (Díaz, 2003; San Martín 2005; Gustavsson et al., 2006; Beerli et al.., 2007, 2008), which leads to an integrated and global image, in which each reality is a whole different from the sum of the parts that compose it.Each part has its specificity and the whole encompasses the image of a site.
Behavioral Component:
Costa (2003) has as a reference the psychological theory of Gestalt perception and Shannon's communication model and takes as a starting point, for its analysis, the Gestalt concept of perception. Some authors like May (1974) and Díaz (2003), identify the image of a brand (company, institution, place, etc.) with attitudes towards it; facilities with more positive images have a greater probability of being considered and elected in the tourist trip decision process. In this sense, for Costa (2001) the image of the company is defined as: the representation in the collective imagination of a set of attributes and values that determine the behavior and opinions of this community (Gustavsson et al., 2006).
Within the component that is analyzed, it should be noted that in the process of motivation towards a certain behavior, the images compete with each other. Villafañe (1993), argues that the image of a company represents an intangible phenomenon, very unstable, and generally built from a process of accumulation of input that, in itself, will not be decisive when making a decision of purchase or to promote a choice, but that can become decisive. The image as a mental model can be a good or bad representation of reality, but in any case significant because it guides behavior. This in terms of conduct can bring the customer closer to or away from a possibility of purchase and strongly influences the acceptance of a place or product.
Image relationship with other variables
Costa argues that the image is a multidimensional element in its configuration, formed in the minds of individuals or in a group of them to obtain a global representation (Costa, 2007). It has the ability to "represent the set of beliefs, attitudes and impressions that a person or group has about an object,… impressions that can be true or false, real or imaginary, true or wrong and that guide and shape behavior" of people or groups (Zerqueira, 2009), and influences the selection of the hotel.
The image constitutes, by its own essence, an integrated perception of phenomena; One quality of the images to be taken into account by the service manager is their ability to schematize, which helps to retain them in mind and to represent concepts that allow assessing many other important aspects to consider for the administration of the company, such as those that They are set out below.
Business Identity
The perception of the hotel facility is integrated not only by the tourist's beliefs about its attributes, but also by their feelings towards the latter. Consequently, individuals will use the different dimensions of the image - cognitive and affective in nature - to compare the phenomena evoked in their mind during the choice process and ultimately select the place to visit (San Martín, 2006)
This concept represents the last link in a chain, it is the result of a projected image and a studied identity.
The corporate identity of a company is its cover letter, its face in front of the public; the image that we will form of this organization will depend on this identity.
For common sense, identity is equivalent to identification, since one and the other are experienced interchangeably. They depend on each other to such an extent that they cannot exist separately, and thus appear in consciousness as the same and unique thing. Identity can be expressed with a very simple equation: it is the being itself or the entity (what it is, exists or can exist) plus its entity (its essence, its form and value). Identity is, then, the intrinsic sum of being and its form, self-expressed in the set of particular features that differentiate a being from all others. In this line of reasoning, the idea of identity supposes the idea of truth, or of authenticity, since identity means, above all, identical to itself: Identity: entity + entity = itself (identical). Identification is, on the other hand,the act of recognizing the identity of a subject, that is, the act of registering and memorizing unequivocally what makes him intrinsically different from all others and, at the same time, identical to himself (notion of uniqueness). Identification occurs in the other subject who is located at the opposite extreme to the first in a communication process. Having a mental image always involves a process that ranges from the perception of significant data and its memorization, to successive perceptions and associations of ideas, and the configuration of a stereotype, which ultimately governs certain behaviors. Having an image implies the existence of a process. Two main features stand out at first glance: the duration of the process and the persistence of the image in social memory.If the visual identity is a system of signs (or a structure of signs) the image associated with them is a larger system of signs and attributes. We speak of company identity and image when we refer to its quality as an institution, to all its management and service activities, its attributes of solvency, power, organization and effectiveness. This image is generally linked to the keywords of its company name: when it is identified, read, pronounced or thought about, a certain image comes to mind.organization and efficiency. This image is generally linked to the keywords of its company name: when it is identified, read, pronounced or thought about, a certain image comes to mind.organization and efficiency. This image is generally linked to the keywords of its company name: when it is identified, read, pronounced or thought about, a certain image comes to mind.
An analysis of the existing human resources in each organization and its influence on the image and strategic management is necessary. Its importance as a unique resource focuses on the business knowledge stored throughout the life of the organization and the support in the rest of the company's resources that generates automatic actions in response to what to do and how. There is a close bidirectional relationship between resources and capabilities, the latter are generated from the former and also contribute to the formation of new resources to achieve competitive advantages (Díaz, 2003). Within the strategic management process, it is important to have the right tools. Consequently, it must be used to position ourselves with advantages over the competition and contribute to creating value. This is the case of the image,where carrying out a procedure that measures it allows the development of necessary capacities to manage business systems efficiently and effectively with a focus on the customer, potentially allowing the differentiating value of the image as an intangible resource of the company.
The image is a consequence of the actions of the business administration and not a communicative variable. Aspects related to quality, customer service, the corporate identification of its employees, the internal climate, condition the corporate image in a remarkable way and demand that the strategy for its management allows its control and monitoring if it is to be effective, occurring in the same way at the institutional level. The image through the communication of identity is an element with competitive content, and to compete effectively in the new markets that are being configured, companies must review their identity cyclically, as well as the way in which they communicate said identity, in order to to create a concordant image of their business strategies (Benavides et al., 2001).This implies approaching the realities that establish points of contact without losing sight of the essence of the organization.
Tourist buying behavior
The image has a direct bearing on and impacts on the preference and motivation of the individual towards tourism, by providing an attraction effect (Sánchez et al., 2000; Bigné et al., 2001; Díaz, 2003; Beerli et al., 2008) that show different models of buying behavior. The complexity of the study of behavior is that it is specific for each product, situation and person (Mediano, 2002; Inbakaran and Jackson, 2005; Gustavsson et al., 2006).
Regarding the tourist consumer, the study of it is complex, from the choice of destination as the tourist's first decision, to the choice of accommodation, transportation. Image is one of the triggers in the final choice of a tourism product. How the image is supported, how it will present itself in the mind of the tourist. If the image is well conceived, structured, analyzed and accompanied by a real support, then its value is enhanced and it is the way it comes to the eyes of the potential client. The image can have a value that raises the possibilities and expectations of the client.
It is important to define what constitutes "product and tourism"; what Acerenza (1984) defined as the amalgamation of attractions, facilities and accessibility. This definition is complemented by incorporating elements such as the sum of tangible and intangible components that includes goods, resources, infrastructures, equipment, services, management engineering, brand image and the price that the tourist receives.
Considering that the needs with which the tourism industry works are essentially subjective, since they are based on expectations, dreams and illusions and considering that each tourist has different tastes and order of preferences, it is very important to identify the personal needs of tourists, who in short, generate the decision to travel, define groups with homogeneous behaviors and finally, establish which are the market segments that with respect to the type of possible product would be more appropriate to analyze in depth.
Mathieson and Wall (1982) emphasize that, “the decision to travel precipitates a series of subsequent decisions that include the choice of destination, the way of traveling, the length of stay and the type of accommodation. Images of potential destinations are important in formulating this decision making. In turn, each hotel institution is inserted in a destination and they compete in the offer of a variety of products in certain source markets and tourist segments based on their resources and capacities, determining the buying behavior of a tourist trip fundamentally by image of the destination in general and the image of the hotel institution in particular (Oreja, 1999; Weaver, 2000; Morrison, 2002; Beerli et al, 2008).
The quality and variety of services may be similar in various hotels, but their images will always differ from each other. These differences can be decisive factors in choosing one hotel over another. The image is the cause of the purchase decision, the satisfaction and the possible repetition of the tourist hotel. Within tourism marketing, information-communication has an absolutely definitive role, since in the act of selling the tourist product promises are mainly handled due to the intangibility of the tourist product, its inseparability, so the mental image of a hotel or product a person has will be final at the time of their final choice. (Chirino, 2009).
Consumer behavior is not restricted to the simple act of buying or using the product, it ranges from the emergence of the need to the contrast between what is expected and what is perceived, satisfaction (Chirino, 2009).
Degree of satisfaction
The attractiveness of the image of a tourist hotel is the reflection of the perceptions and feelings that consumers have about the hotel in its capacity to provide satisfaction in relation to their specific leisure needs according to Yangzhou and Ritchie (1993). Consequently, the relationship between the hotel's image and tourist satisfaction must be analyzed.
The projected images of hotels can differ greatly from the reality found. The greater the difference between image and reality, that is, between expectations and experience, the greater the probability of lack of tourist satisfaction. Therefore, the information available to the tourist must be as close to reality.
The motivations are those that generate in the tourist the impulse to travel. Knowing this is a fundamental step to be able to satisfy the needs that it presents. It is important to create a positive image of the hotel for tourists visiting for the first time. But it is essential that this image is satisfied with its correspondence with reality.
The perception that tourists have in relation to a certain hotel, that is, the sum of the information and experiences in relation to it, influence both the choice of the hotel and the satisfaction that tourists will have in the hotel. future trip.
The satisfaction that the tourist has throughout their experience is directly linked to the expectations generated, which makes it essential that they correspond as much as possible with the reality that they are going to encounter. The consumer, depending on the inherent costs of the different transactions to be carried out, will choose the alternative that provides a better price / satisfied wishes ratio.
Companies, and tourism entities in general, need to understand the behavior of their consumers, their needs, attitudes, and in turn design their offer in correspondence with the image to be projected so that they are attractive and satisfy market requirements (Kotler, 1991; Beerli et al., 2008).
The World Tourism Organization (1998) highlights that, “since the tourist experience is intangible and, in addition, implies a physical and temporal distance between the decision and the consumption, the degree of satisfaction will depend on the expectations that the client forms. These expectations are influenced by tourism promotion and advertising as well as personal needs, past experiences or information that is transmitted verbally. If the expectations created are excessively high, the tourist will be disappointed and dissatisfied. For this reason, it is essential not to create false expectations ”. In this way, the information available to the tourist must be very close to reality.
If the tourist is dissatisfied, they may continue with the same provider if they do not expect anything better from the competition, and a satisfied customer may wish to change providers expecting to obtain even greater satisfaction (Bigné et al., 2001). In reality, defensive strategies pursue customer satisfaction, in order to increase their loyalty and their transmission of positive images of the product. The more the customer is thought about, the better the conception of the product aimed at their satisfaction.
By way of synthesis, taking into account the cognitive, simplifying and comparative nature of the concept of image (Costa, 2001, 2007; Calviño, 1999; Chon, 1990, 1992; Valls, 1995; Dann, 2000; Baloglu and MaElroy, 1999; Go and Govers, 2000; Caruso, 2004), it has been understood that the image of a hotel will be the global perception of it, the representation in the mind of the tourist of what he knows and feels about the hotel (attitude) (Echtner and Ritchie, 1991, 1993; Baloglu and Brinberg, 1997; Milman and Pizam, 1995; Bigné, 1996; Ritchie and Crouch, 2000; Pearce, 1997, 2000). Now, the image is formed, from multiple sources of information from the accumulation of first images to the experience in the hotel and the formation of a more real and complete image (Gunn, 1989; Clawson and Knech, 1966; Echtner and Ritchie, 1991).This results in the identification of various typologies of hotel images (Gartner, 1993; Crompton and Fakeye, 1991; Gunn, 1972, 1989; Sanz de la Tajada, 1994; Selby and Morgan, 1996; Díaz, 2003; Beerli et al.., 2008), being the organic image the one that will have the greatest weight in the global image and this in turn in the decision to choose a specific hotel (Santos, 1996; Díaz, 2003; Beerli et al., 2008).
Quality in the tourist service
The quality of the accommodation facilities is essential to satisfy the expectations generated in tourists. The conformation of a quality image of the hotel is a complex aspect, since it is determined both by the communicative actions related to the referred hotel facility, as well as by the perception that tourists themselves have of it, as well as other people who in a way Directly or indirectly, they can offer them information in relation to the hotel.
The image will be determined by the perception of the visitors, which in turn, will be affected by the accessibility to the hotel, the quality of life conditions of the residents and by the management of politics in general.
It has been possible to identify the importance of both the communication actions and the quality of the hotel in shaping the tourist image that will motivate the customer to choose one hotel or another.
Many authors who have studied quality in service companies agree that the greater or lesser degree of consumer satisfaction depends largely on what they call the expected level of service, or what is the same, customer expectations. There is a clear subjective component in the quality of tourist services, and it depends to a great extent, on the previous image of the company. (Chirino, 2009).
Every tourist entity seeks more and more, the satisfaction of customer expectations through quality and, in this way, to be able to achieve the development of a lasting relationship between tourists and the institutions in charge of providing the required service. Thus the term quality achieves a better position and performance.
According to Kotler (1995), to ensure that the service has the required quality, the personnel must be well selected, invest in their training, standardize the service throughout the organization and measure customer satisfaction (Pons and Low, 2005; Jonasson and Mård; 2007). One way to measure satisfaction is through the perceived image of the service, the image is quantifiable since it has the property of surviving for a certain time.
The image can provide an idea, but it can also affect the way consumers perceive quality. In this way it can be stated that the image of the product improves to the extent that the user or customer perceives the quality.
The Nordic School of Service Quality reflects these ideas in what they call the Image Model, and consider that the quality perceived by the consumer is influenced by three factors: technical quality, functional quality and business image.
The image by itself does not conform to the quality of a service but if it establishes patterns that the tourist checks during their stay at the institution, if these references are not met, it is possible that the consumer will feel dissatisfied in terms of the expectations created and the image sold differ from reality. Grönroos (1994), states that expectations and experimentation with reality, in the form of technical or functional quality of the service, causes the resulting perceived quality of services to change the image (Jonasson and Mård; 2007). Therefore, when conducting studies that measure the image of tourist institutions, it is essential to consider the quality of the service as a determining variable.
The following model constitutes a synthesis of what was explained above:
Graph 1. Relational model "Image and other variables".
Relational Image of a Hotel. Source: Duffus 2008.
Role and place of the image in the strategic management of hotel institutions
The term strategy comes from the Greek word strategos, which translates as general or head of the army, adapting over the years to a broader socioeconomic context.
The purpose of strategic management lies in achieving the long-term objectives set, through coherent decisions that the company must make in the face of permanent changes that occur in the context in which it operates (Chirino, 2009).
Strategic management is a process that is directed towards achieving and maintaining a competitive advantage that allows the company to continue in the market. The management of the company must first know what objectives to pursue, then direct and coordinate all efforts to achieve those goals. The strategy must always be at the same time as innovation and the creation of added value. It is essential for any company that wants to be successful and that seeks profit, to undergo a formal system of strategic management.
For some time, the evolution of demand for destinations has been defined by pressure based on prices generating short-term profits (Goodall, 1991; Kent, 1991). At this time, new management currents are emerging aimed at obtaining benefits in the long term and focused on understanding the needs and desires of consumers, which allow achieving competitive advantages in the market based on positioning, customer loyalty, satisfaction and quality (Pearce, 1997). In this sense, Buhalis (2000) provides the vision of three options to achieve the competitiveness of the destination through marketing management: Porter's strategies, Gilbert's framework of action, and Poon's flexible specialization. All of them see the destination from an overall point of view, as a whole,that it possesses its resources, physical and psychological; but not as a complex organization capable of generating its own resources and capacities, the product of the combination of internal resources and characteristics of the destination itself. Competitive advantage is understood to be the set of resources added to the tourist destination throughout its life, it is the package of actions or lines of action that allow achieving competitive positions superior to the initial or current ones. Sustainable competitive advantage is the result or benefit over time, the result of the implementation of a unique strategy that creates value for the company, not being simultaneously used by any current or potential competitor and without the possibility of being imitated or duplicated, (Duffus, 2009). The destination must be innovative in its management using factors such as quality,sustainability of the environment and image.
The search for resources capable of generating a comparative advantage is the starting key to achieve a sustainable competitive advantage over time, at least as long as these resources are maintained or are capable of creating others that lead to superior performance.
The competitiveness of the destination is not delimited to the mere existence of physical or psychological resources valued by the consumer, the competitiveness of the destination is established based on internal resources and capacities by generation, combination or result of the interaction of products, natural resources, participants in the destination. It is then about the identification, training and development of valuable and unique resources (Grant, 1996) based on the peculiarities of the destination, constituting the basis for the formation of the image. A company has a sustained competitive advantage when it is carrying out a strategy that generates value and that is not simultaneously carried out by another current or potential competitor and is unable to reproduce the benefits of the strategy ”(Barney. 1991, pp. 102).The differentiation is found in the development of strategies that add value but are not understandable to the competition. In this sense, the use of the image and the domain of identity as strategic variables different from the competition, could constitute valuable contributions for the development of decision-making that generate competitive advantages.
The strategy is supported by certain sources that generate value, such as for Day and Wensley (1988) superior abilities (personal capacities) and superior resources (tangible elements that allow the company to exercise its capacities) or for Hunt and Morgan (1995, 1996, 1997) financial, physical, legal, human, organizational, information or relationships,… each author establishes different resources and generating capacities of a strategy valued by the market.
The strategy sets the way forward to achieve, through the combination of resources and capabilities, a sustainable competitive advantage.
For Porter, there are only two possible generic strategies:
- Obtain products or services at a lower price than the competition and be the leader in costs. The sources of advantage can include preferential access to raw materials, superior technology, experience curve, economies of scale and the like, that the product or service is perceived by customers as exclusive, being the leader in differentiation. The product or service must be perceived as "unique" to justify a higher price. As regards differentiation, it is possible to propose several strategies if there are several attributes that are widely valued by buyers.
On the other hand, the market approach also influences, since a product or service can be directed towards a sector or towards a segment. Some authors speak of the "approach" as if it were another strategy in itself.
From the crossing of these variables, the different quadrants of the matrix emerge, which are self-explanatory. For Porter, it is difficult to be both a leader in costs and in exclusivity, running the risk of falling short of both objectives.
Generic Strategies. (Porter, 1980).
Measurement of image and identity. Basic methodologies
Most previous studies have examined image as a dependent variable. For example, Milman and Pizam (1995, cited in Ibrahim and Gill, 2005) suggested that familiarity with the destination can influence the perception of the image that tourists have of a destination. But it is also considered that subjects with different socio-demographic characteristics show different levels of response and confidence depending on the type of research techniques, the means of data collection and questions used (Tasci, 2005). Although it depends on several factors, the image itself can have an impact on variables such as the satisfaction or dissatisfaction that a tourist derives from the destination (Ibrahjim and Gill, 2005). Thus,measuring the image of a destination serves to understand which are the important components within it and the way in which people structure their understanding (Traversa, 2004; cited in García, 2008).
There are two basic approaches to measuring the tourist image: structured and unstructured (Echtner and Ritchie, 2003; Jenkins, 1999; San Martín, 2006).
In the structured approach, the researcher sets in advance a series of more or less common attributes for all tourist destinations or tourist facilities under study. Next, through a Likert or semantic differential scale, the individual's perception is measured for each of the attributes; in this way, the common component of the image of a certain destination is captured (San Martín, 2006). However, since this approach involves an a priori list of attributes, it can be relatively unreliable (Timmersman 1982; cited in Jenkins, 1999). Furthermore, due to its intangible nature, many researchers fail to measure the holistic components of a destination image using structured methodology (Jenkins, 1999).
On the other hand, the unstructured approach is based on the use of open questions that allow the individual to make free descriptions about the destination, measuring the individual's holistic impressions of the place, and the characteristics that in his opinion are unique or distinctive (San Martín, 2006). Information is collected through methods such as focus groups or surveys with open questions. Content analysis and various classification techniques are used to determine the dimensions of the image (Echtner and Ritchie, 2003).
Because each approach has particular advantages and disadvantages, several researchers recommend using the two approaches together to capture all components of the destination image (San Martín, 2006).
On the other hand, following these lines of research, the Methodology proposed by Sanz (1994) to measure the image of companies is presented, which includes the following phases (Díaz, 2003; Beerli et al, 2008; Cook and Reichart, 1988; Sanz de la Tajada, 1994; LeCompte, 1995; Dos Santos Filho, 1995; Peiró et al., 1999; Raymond and Chu, 2000; Kuo-Ching, 2007):
- Cabinet Study: consists of collecting useful information from the studies previously carried out by the company. Qualitative Phase: group meetings and in-depth interviews aimed at designing the questionnaire and obtaining own conclusions about the phenomenon in question. This information is very convenient to be able to select, among other things, complex, confidential information or open lawsuits regarding the required information (Grande and Abascal, 2000; Delgado and Gutiérrez, 1994; Sarabia, 1999; Taylor and Bogard, 1992). With the application of this technique we intend to go beyond the assessment of previously selected information. The main intention is to know if all the information collected is represented in the items and also to give the opportunity for the interviewee towithin the objectives of the investigation, convey the information you have. The results of the in-depth interviews will draw a map that defines the set of elements that significantly affect the object of study. Quantitative Phase: it is carried out through the application of representative surveys of the population. The assessment of each of the questions and items of the questionnaire is generally carried out through a continuous metric scale (Grande and Abascal, 2000; Sarabia, 1999; Malhotra, 1997). In the evaluation of scales or questions, Likert scales of 5, 7 or 9 intervals are normally used, identifying the evaluation of each of the intervals.The results of the in-depth interviews will draw a map that defines the set of elements that significantly affect the object of study. Quantitative Phase: it is carried out through the application of representative surveys of the population. The assessment of each of the questions and items of the questionnaire is generally carried out through a continuous metric scale (Grande and Abascal, 2000; Sarabia, 1999; Malhotra, 1997). In the evaluation of scales or questions, Likert scales of 5, 7 or 9 intervals are normally used, identifying the evaluation of each of the intervals.The results of the in-depth interviews will draw a map that defines the set of elements that significantly affect the object of study. Quantitative Phase: it is carried out through the application of representative surveys of the population. The assessment of each of the questions and items of the questionnaire is generally carried out through a continuous metric scale (Grande and Abascal, 2000; Sarabia, 1999; Malhotra, 1997). In the evaluation of scales or questions, Likert scales of 5, 7 or 9 intervals are normally used, identifying the evaluation of each of the intervals.The assessment of each of the questions and items of the questionnaire is generally carried out through a continuous metric scale (Grande and Abascal, 2000; Sarabia, 1999; Malhotra, 1997). In the evaluation of scales or questions, Likert scales of 5, 7 or 9 intervals are normally used, identifying the evaluation of each of the intervals.The assessment of each of the questions and items of the questionnaire is generally carried out through a continuous metric scale (Grande and Abascal, 2000; Sarabia, 1999; Malhotra, 1997). In the evaluation of scales or questions, Likert scales of 5, 7 or 9 intervals are normally used, identifying the evaluation of each of the intervals.
A plan to create and implement an image involves a chain task, which covers various aspects of business activity, and which must be governed by an essentially integrating criterion. This assumes that a complete process in the form of an organization chart will have been previously designed, and that precise methods will have been applied. (González et al., 2008).
The starting point of an identity program is the definition of the company's “self-concept”: its philosophy and objectives, both institutional and commercial, based on the future image that will have to be implemented and that must correspond and effectively transmit the true personality, quality and size of the company.
For the measurement of identity, Sanz de la Tejada, proposes to carry out an identity audit, which consists of six stages:
- First stage: Creation of a theoretical framework on the normative scope of the conceptual identity of the company. Said theoretical framework must be an adequate answer about what is understood by identity of excellence, which serves as a reference to analyze the current identity that the company has; and it must also establish what is the scope of the variables or categories to study. Second stage: Analysis of the historical memory of the company. It is carried out through in-depth interviews with senior managers, in addition to the documentary analysis of statements about identity registered in the company's files. Third stage: Identity analysis based on the perception that the company's managers, cadres and employees have about of what it is and what it should be.For this, interviews must be carried out with the application of questionnaires with closed questions, differentiating two levels of personnel in the company. Designing a questionnaire for managers and cadres, and another for employees. Fourth stage: Documentary analysis of data and reports and other internal circulation papers that may or may not have been edited. In this regard, it is possible to differentiate two types of documents with clearly peculiar content. First, the documents related to strategic planning; and secondly, the documents on the philosophy of the company. Fifth stage: Environmental observation on the rituals or ways of welcoming visitors and clients, the rituals or ways of answering by telephone, the spatial distribution of the working population, the rituals of celebration,rewards and prizes, the rituals of decision-making systems, the different levels and structures of communication between employees, and the style of the physical facilities of the company.Stage six: Analysis of objective indicators of the same variables or categories included in the interviews, with in order to correct the possible subjective deviation.
The second step is the analysis of the existing image using the classic methods: exploratory, dimensional, and stability. Next, the ideal or future image is compared with the current image, deviations are detected and the principles for a corrective plan are established.
The third step will be the study of the current marketing system of the company. At the same time, the materials that circulate through the system will be analyzed. So far the conceptual aspect of the process. The identification system is not necessarily included in a global business image operation. In some cases, identification is carried out directly, although this is not the most recommended, since in fact, identification and image are correlated and one never operates on one of them without affecting the other. From there, we move on to the specific field of implementation. At this point of work, and as a consequence of the new strategy, the correction or creation of the identification system is proposed, consistent with the strategy guidelines.
The identification system is the formal part of the image
Costa defines the transforming process from identity to image as:
- The objective identity of the company ("what is") is equivalent to what, in a person, is the set of descriptive data ("who is") that are inscribed in his identity document or his passport and that we can see and read (but only see and read). His personality, his character, his attitudes, his behavior, his way of being, that is, what gives him life and uniqueness as an entity, are not in the document. We discover them (and interpret and value them) when we come into real contact with this institution: in the way it behaves according to our personal subjective experience. With the perceptions and experiences, we build a mental synthesis that, for us, defines the hotel. It is a knowledge that remains in our memory, and that becomes present to the conscience when we remember it, see it or someone speaks to us about it.It is the image. Our attitudes and opinions about this person are determined by the image we have formed of him.
These models constitute the basis and guide for the study of the phenomenon but are applicable to institutions with a deeper work on identity and image; In the case of institutions without these characteristics, we propose a procedure to measure image and identity, applying later to the comparison of both results and starting from the fact that in these hotel institutions these management variables are not used in making strategic decisions. Being able to take this analysis to obtaining competitive advantages that allow to be marketed and made known internationally based on the characteristics of the image of the hotel in question.
Conclusions
- The image is an intangible resource that the tourism company has to develop its capacities, the use of it, as a variable of the administration can become a sustainable advantage that redesigns the service offered considering the changing needs of the demand from the offer, which contributes to the efficient and effective use of resources.The comparison between image and identity allows to master the strengths and weaknesses of the tourist company, allowing the pertinent changes to be made to eliminate the differences between the expected image and the image received by the tourist upon arrival installation.
Consulted References
- Campruní. R. 2009. The formation of the Induced Tourist Image: A conceptual model ”University of Girona. PASOS Tourism and Cultural Heritage Magazine. Vol. 7.Chirino, T. Y 2009. Image of Hotels in the Central Region: Hotel Los Caneyes Case. Thesis of Degree. Duffus, MD 2009. Procedure to measure the Image of the hotels of the Central Region: Hotel Los Caneyes case. Master Thesis. Gustavsson, E, Chen N, Pan HH 2006. Gothenburg's Image as a Tourism Destination among Typical Tourists and Sport Tourists ”Tourism and Hospitality Management, Master Thesis No. 2006: 90. Pons, G. R, Pons, G. R, Morales ML 2008. The Choice of a Destination by the potential tourist ”. IV Conference of Business Sciences, Villa Clara, Cuba. San Martín, GH 2005. Study of the tourist destination image and the global satisfaction process:adoption of an integrative approach ”University of Cantaria, Department of Business Administration, Santander, PhD Thesis. San Martín, GH 2006. Image analysis in tourism using structured and unstructured techniques: Competitive implications for tourist destinations” University of Cantaria, Asturian Journal of Economics, Sanz de la Tajada, L. 1994. Integration of the identity and image of the company: Conceptual development and practical application. Ed. ESIC.Zerqueira, GAL 2009. Image of Hotels in the Central Region: Case of HoteL Brisas Trinidad del Mar. Graduate Thesis.Competitive implications for tourist destinations ”University of Cantaria, Asturian Journal of Economics. Sanz de la Tajada, L. 1994. Integration of the identity and image of the company: Conceptual development and practical application. Ed. ESIC.Zerqueira, GAL 2009. Image of Hotels in the Central Region: Case of HoteL Brisas Trinidad del Mar. Graduate Thesis.Competitive implications for tourist destinations ”University of Cantaria, Asturian Journal of Economics. Sanz de la Tajada, L. 1994. Integration of the identity and image of the company: Conceptual development and practical application. Ed. ESIC.Zerqueira, GAL 2009. Image of Hotels in the Central Region: Case of HoteL Brisas Trinidad del Mar. Graduate Thesis.
Definition proposed by League of Nations Committee of Experts on Statistics, January 22, 1937 (cited in Fernández, 1985).
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