The path of critical thinking and the typology of thought

Introduction

Have you ever wondered; what makes you act in a certain way very different from the rest of the others, that your opinions differ or are coupled with those of your friends, another example could be that you carry out practical activities in less time but those that involve thinking and analyzing the more the situation takes you longer to resolve them.

Well then, you will know what thinking implies, but first you need to know What is thinking? it is the activity and creation of the mind; It is said of everything that is brought into existence through the activity of the intellect. The term is commonly used as a generic form that defines all the products that the mind can generate including the rational activities of the intellect or the abstractions of the imagination; Everything that is mental in nature is considered thought, whether they are abstract, rational, creative, artistic.

Thinking is presented as a line that must be followed in order to reach the place of the questions that begin with when, why, who it was, etc. This activity has no barriers. It is a process that occurs immediately that opens up new horizons for us to discover and learn what we grasp through our senses. I dare to think that the action of thinking is almost like breathing without it there would be no professionals, workers, people with a trade and even our life would be monotonous and we would not advance in technology, we would continue to live as in the age of caves.

But today our 21st century society needs autonomous citizens who decide and act with critical judgment in the face of social and cultural values ​​and norms. Going to another area such as education, she wants to develop thinking skills through competencies: such as reading ability that allows them to go beyond a literal understanding and go beyond the limit until they reach critical and creative understanding, as well as that Identify what you need to know and learn, selecting, organizing and evaluating content to critically appropriate information and use it ethically.

Arguing helps to reason to analyze problematic situations or that are of our interest and this implies asking questions, making judgments to propose possible solutions, in such a way that strategies can be designed and applied to instruct other people.

Because thinking always responds to a motivation, which can be originated in the natural, social or cultural environment, or in the thinking subject, is a problem solving and a need that demands satisfaction.

Finally, it can be concluded that this process of logical thinking always follows a certain direction; This direction goes in search of a conclusion or the solution of a problem, it does not strictly follow a straight line but rather zigzagging with advances, which begin in a particular event and reach the most complex of the matter, and on other occasions even setbacks since it influences the past experience from which fruitful or unsuccessful results were obtained.

Throughout history, psychologists, pedagogues, sociologists and philosophers continue to investigate more about the functioning of the brain and whether it has evolved, which makes technology more advanced every day, but above all they wonder how the brain will evolve a century later.

This is how medical researchers mention that the brain is a machine that controls our entire body from a body movement to what we must do in a whole day, it is the one that orders which images to store and which to discard in the same way happens with Knowledge that is acquired, some are reinforced by turning them into competencies and others are forgotten due to lack of ability.

Therefore, all teachers need to know their group of students to identify their needs and strengths to provide them with strategic tools that help them make use of metacognition where they are in charge of regulating and evaluating their teaching-learning process.

In the first chapter. The beginnings of studies are described towards the processes of the way of thinking and its elements that intervene to be able to get to know how the individual acquires knowledge according to the circumstances in which they will find themselves and their evolutionary level of psychological maturity.

In the second chapter. It mentions the types of thinking that each subject develops depending on the stimuli they receive from their environment and the stages through which an idea transits to another new conceptualization as described by Edward de Bono with his theory of the six hats.

The purpose of this document is a contribution to learn more about what thinking implies and what its origins were, for which new researchers have followed this line and provide new techniques and strategic tools for teaching learning.

1.1 What is thinking?

Thought is the activity and creation of the mind; It is said of everything that is brought into existence through the activity of the intellect, the term is commonly used as a generic form that defines all the products that the mind can generate including the rational activities of the intellect or the abstractions of the imagination; everything that is mental in nature is considered thought, whether they are abstract, rational, creative, artistic, etc.

While the mind is conceived as an open, active and modifiable system; liable to be guided and stimulated to achieve structural and functional changes, capable of producing effects on human performance.

But the origin of thought is Speech and organized thought arises through reasoning. Where logic and syntax are an important part of everyday language, because reasoning involves discovering the assumptions on which statements are based, creating or making solid or valid inferences, offering convincing reasons, making defensible classifications and definitions, articulating explanations and descriptions, make judgments, make coherent arguments.

Thought factors

The logic does not study all the thought, because, in reality, this one is very complex since it includes diverse aspects or "factors". Thought factors are called those elements that concur in the very phenomenon of thought.

• Thinking subject: is responsible for producing or generating thought capable of mentally capturing or apprehending the characteristics of an object and the relationships between various objects. Psychic process: these are perceptions, images, feelings, experiences, etc. that arise when we think something. This process is the object of study of Psychology, more than of logic.Thought object: it is the content or theme on which the thoughts refer Forms of thought: it consists of the structures that thoughts adopt regardless of the contents to which they refer These structures are Idea (concept), Judgment and Reasoning. Expression: also called a linguistic factor or oral, bodily or written expression of the ideas we have in mind, it uses codes as signs and signals.

The person is conceived as a mouldable entity, capable of regulating their will, of using their intellectual independence and of making the best use of advances in science and knowledge to develop their potential and optimize intellectual production, as well as their ability to learning.

Thinking skills allow the use of reason, the application of logical-critical thinking, the achievement of the creative process, discernment, intuition and inventiveness to learn, generate knowledge, make decisions and solve problems.

Another benefit that is obtained with the development of thinking skills is in the social aspect. Using logic, experience, emotional and practical intelligences, habits and common sense to think and act within a broad, coherent, valid and balanced frame of reference, affects the interaction with the environment and with the people who do it. surround.

1.2 Philosophical thought

Philosophical thought is critical, active, restless, nonconformist, free, rational, non-empirical, and especially speculative (impractical) thinking that inquires for answers about those essential facts that science has not yet been able to answer, and that raises the man as a rational being in its fullness. It does not rely on assumptions to support its claims, but on proven truths, to search for principles and causes, based on the trust placed in the ability of reason to find them.

Philosophical thought flourished in Greece as there was a category of citizens who had free time to devote themselves to what they called creative leisure, which served them to search for those answers through their intellect.

The current hectic world that we have to live in, with little free time for meditation, and with a high utilitarian and materialistic content, is not conducive to the development of this thought, so necessary for man to contact the essential aspects of his existence.

Philosophical thought is based on trying to answer two basic questions, where do we come from, and where are we going, being the first questions that man formulated on the first matter and then extended to all kinds of questions, transforming into a universal thought that It encompasses all aspects of reality that are open to question.

Socrates (470 - 399 BC)

Creator of the introduction of inductive reasoning and universal definition, both basic elements of every principle of science. His ethics is centered on man, from the point of view of his interiority (know yourself), being its center the concept of virtue (areté) as the ultimate and radical disposition of man; this virtue is science.

He followed the Maieutics consisting of a series of ordered and graduated questions that forced the interlocutor to think and discern for himself, leading him to the knowledge of the truth. His method led him to the discovery of universal concepts or ideas of things: from a sufficient number of cases a general idea emerges, it is induction.

Plato (427-347 BC)

Disciple of Socrates and his main diffuser. In Athens he forms his own school, the academy. His work is known as Platonic Idealism.

He also wondered about the being of things and where to find it; used myth as a means of expressing his thought, especially in relation to the explanation that the being of things is found in ideas, which cannot be directly accessible to our knowledge and that of man's forgetting about what he already knows before his existence as a man, when it originates from the fall of a soul of heavenly origin, now the memory is only a shadow of ideas.

Coming to the conclusion of the existence of two worlds, between which there is no contradiction:

The world of ideas: which corresponds to the domain of being and constitutes the only reality and the world of shadows that corresponds to non-being, is the sensible world, becoming.

Myth of the Caverns: here his contribution is not only philosophical, but also literary. Plato contributes concepts about the structure of reality, being and being, ethics and politics, and about philosophy itself.

It involves two types of knowledge:

1. The sensitive provided by the senses and which is no more than mere opinion and which only allows me to understand material things. Intellectual knowledge, the true one through which we know the ideal world, is to remember "reminiscences." Knowing is remembering.

Aristotle (384-322 BC)

He is the greatest figure of all philosophy, creator of logic, forger of metaphysics, systematizer of knowledge, he is the creator of logic, as the art of thinking and instrument of all scientific knowledge.

According to Aristotle, all living beings also have the ability to feel (perceive and have emotions) in the world around them and to move in nature. However, human beings also have the ability to think or reason, in other words order their sensations into various groups and classes.

It admits various degrees of knowledge:

• Sensitive through the sensations that we receive from things. Experimental knowledge that technically or knowing how to do things allows us to capture the concrete and singular. Rational or intellectual knowledge that consists of knowing the why of things.

In its metaphysics, it allows us to understand how being is not univocal, but rather that there are different ways of being; for what he called the essence and the accident.

He deduces by act and power and its relation to movement the existence of an immobile first motor, God; the soul and the body are a single compound that make up man. It describes three types of government: Monarchy, Aristocracy and Democracy, identifying society with the State.

John Dewéy (1859-1952)

Another precursor of this line who was neither a psychologist nor a pedagogue; Like all the great North American founders of pragmatism, he was a philosopher, only a philosopher whose speech was always conveyed by a psychological language and whose commitment to philosophy was no more than mediate because, ultimately, it was only with the real man and your fight for well-being.

Dewey always tried to practice a philosophy alien to the problems of the philosophers, in his hands it was a solving method of the real problems of men from the psychological knowledge of the supreme instrument that evolution has created intelligent learning.

How we think is not understood if it is not from Dewey's faith in "reflective thinking" as the main function of intelligence and in its supreme power so that the human struggle for survival leads to the triumph of innovation, of change and progress and defeat of the status quo. To think, finally, either it is about a socially progressive change or it is not.

For him, the scientific method was nothing but the regulated and canonical expression of what reflective thought always is: conjecture, selection of hypotheses, critical verification, experimentation, imaginative search for the new, permanent curiosity.

1.3 Psychological thinking

Psychology is the science that studies human behavior and behavior, as well as the mental processes that underlie it.

Thought is a higher mental process that allows us to establish connections between ideas or representations. Human thought is structured in schemes, which are hierarchical organizations of concepts related to each other through logical propositions.

Our thinking, however, does not work "logically", since it uses heuristics to simplify the processing of information; that is, it skips certain steps in the logical deductions it makes in order to save cognitive energy. The result is that on many occasions there are biases in the reasoning.

Memory is the ability to retain, process and store information that comes from outside.

The most classic explanation is the so-called multistore theory, which holds that information goes through different memory stores as it is processed. In the first place we would find the sensory memory, which retains the information for a few milliseconds; later, this information would go to short-term memory (MCP), which retains it for a short period of time, extracting its most significant aspects. Here you already work mentally with the received data, connecting them with each other through the working or working memory. Finally, the most relevant data can be stored in long-term memory (MLP), theoretically of unlimited capacity. The data that is not stored is lost so as not to saturate the system, thus the phenomenon of forgetting occurs.

Although this theory has great descriptive value, the most modern approaches have criticized it for lacking sufficient explanation about the transfer of information between some warehouses and others.

Intelligence can be defined, in a broad sense, as the set of capacities that a subject possesses to face the problems and situations of daily life.

Although it has traditionally been proposed that intelligence was divided into several factors (verbal, numerical, spatial, manipulative), there are modern theories that expand this concept by incorporating other aspects such as social or emotional intelligence, which are also fundamental when evaluating the individual's ability to adapt to the environment.

There are also other criteria for classifying intelligence; It is worth highlighting the distinction between fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence, terms that refer to hereditary factors and environmental factors, respectively.

The ability to understand and communicate with other people is determined by language. This higher mental process allows us to structure thought, establishing connections between ideas and mental representations through schemes. For this reason, it is said that language is the vehicle on which thought runs, both concepts going hand in hand. The two are different sides of the same coin.

But we must not confuse the capacity of language with its modalities. There are several forms of language, the most common being verbal language. However, there are other forms of expression such as culturally elaborate gestures that complement oral communication. The same words accompanied by different gestures can mean totally different things.

Finally, it is also necessary to mention artistic forms as communicative expression; music, painting, sculpture… have their own language.

Thus, the Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896 -1934) Vygotsky became interested in the cognitive development of language, in addition to literary analysis and special education. He taught literature in a secondary school then he was a teacher in a teacher training institute. His interest in psychology led him to present an exhibition on consciousness in Leningrad (Saint Petersburg) that made him famous.

Like Piaget, Vygotsky believed that children construct their own understanding, that they do not simply passively reproduce what is presented to them. However, for Piaget, cognitive construction occurs above all with interaction with physical objects (Ginsberg and Opper, 1988); people play only an indirect role, for example, by creating the environment or some cognitive dissonance. For Vygotsky, on the other hand, cognitive construction is socially mediated and is always influenced by present and past social interaction; what the teacher points out to the student influences what the student “builds”.

Vygotsky's theory of principles of psychology and education can be summarized as follows:

1. Children build knowledge. Development cannot be considered apart from social context. Learning can direct development. Language plays a central role in mental development.

For Vigotsky, the social context influences learning more than attitudes and beliefs; It has a profound influence on how you think and what you think, the social context is part of the development process and, as such, shapes cognitive processes.

By social context we understand the entire social environment, that is, everything that has been directly or indirectly affected by culture in the child's environment. The social context must be considered at various levels:

1. The immediate interactive level, made up of the individual (s) with whom the child interacts at the time The structural level, made up of the social structures that influence the child such as family and school The level general cultural or social, made up of elements of society in general, such as language, the number system and the use of technology.

While Vygotsky recognized that there are maturation requirements necessary for certain cognitive achievements, he did not believe that maturation fully determines development. Maturation influences whether the child can do certain things or not; for example, children could not learn to think logically without mastering the language. However, theorists who regard maturation as the main developmental process believe that there must be a certain level of development before the child can learn new information.

Also, Jean William Fritz Piaget (1896 - 1980) was a Swiss epistemologist, psychologist and biologist, creator of genetic epistemology and famous for his contributions in the field of genetic epistemology, for his studies on childhood and for his theory of cognitive and intelligence development.

The notoriety of Jean Piaget and his scientific work were characterized by the rapid dissemination of some of his discoveries, particularly in the educational field, based on showing, through important discoveries, what children's thinking consists of.

Piaget showed that the child does not limit himself to repeating what he hears adults say or internally copying what his eyes see. She clearly showed the child, not as a miniature adult, but as "an other," characterized by mental structures different from those of adults. He found that long before the so-called "age of reason", when the school began its teaching process, there was already intelligence and logical thinking in children.

He postulated that thought does not have its origin in language, but in action, with the first coordination between the schemes of the activities of a baby who is not yet able to speak (Schmaker R., 1996).

He was convinced that the way in which infantile thinking evolves served to understand rational thought in its most complete state, which is scientific thought. He studied children to understand adults (Bozhovich LY, 1965).

Deeply marked by evolutionary ideas, Piaget sees the utility of understanding rational thought as the result of evolution. To account for this evolution, he avoided the easy solutions linked to preformist nativism, as well as the control of behavior by external influences. He tirelessly accumulated evidence that supports a new way of understanding the evolution of intelligence: constructivism.

According to Piaget, «Intelligence begins neither with the knowledge of the 'I' nor with that of things as such, but rather with that of their interaction, and by simultaneously orienting itself towards the two poles of this interaction, intelligence organizes the world, organizing herself. " His vision of constructivism puts him in opposition to structuralist ideas of great impact during the 20th century.

1.4 Thinking in pedagogical terms

By emphasizing the development of thinking skills, learning becomes active and meaningful. Improving students' thinking in the classroom implies improving their language and their discursive ability. The understanding of meanings is enhanced through the acquisition of the ability to read, the expression of meaning is developed through the ability to write.

The origin of thought is speech and organized thought arises through reasoning. An important task is to raise awareness, sensitize and prepare facilitators so that they in turn can teach students to distinguish confused thinking from effective thinking, correct reasoning from incorrect one.

The fundamental goal of education is to teach people to think, and to stimulate and improve thinking in the classroom it is necessary to stimulate language and make progress in reasoning processes.

Hence, the role that the facilitator plays in the classroom, at any educational level, is very important.

People who are involved in teaching-learning processes have an obligation to create new methodologies that allow students to develop thinking skills so that they print more quality in their daily performance.

Freinet's pedagogy has been seen as a movement for pedagogical renewal; His proposal has been given the name of Active School or education for work action value as a product of work-play occupies the nodal point of his proposal. Understanding that there is a job when the activity supposes a natural need of the individual and, therefore, seeks a satisfaction that is in itself a reason for being.

From the previous assumption, the experimental trial method proposed by Freinet has been explained, which starts from the fact that intelligence is not a faculty that can be isolated from the vital elements of the individual, the acquisition of knowledge is obtained through experimentation, action, observation rather than by study; This action, creation and manifestation of their experiences being a natural tendency of the child.

The conception of education that Freinet has responds to the aforementioned, to that way of cultivating an intelligence that instead of being abstract, is cultivated and acted from the next reality, for this reason school education must be not only linked, but rooted in life itself and for this, an atmosphere must be created in school that, far from putting the work that is carried out within it as an imposition on the child, is presented as a moment of play for which it is important that the activities to develop interesting and functional to the child.

1.5 Learning theories

The various theories help to understand, predict and control human behavior, in turn developing learning strategies and trying to explain how subjects access knowledge. Its object of study focuses on the acquisition of skills and abilities in reasoning and in the acquisition of concepts.

Therefore, what characterizes a good theory in terminology is its ability to predict and incorporate new facts, compared to other theories that limit themselves to exploring what is already known.

A program can be progressive theoretically when it makes new predictions even if they are not corroborated or empirically when it corroborates any of the predictions. A progressive program can stop being progressive when it exhausts its predictive capacity and is unable to expand into new domains if it succeeds in making new partially corroborated predictions.

Lakatos (1978) thinks that a new theory will prevail over another current one, when in addition to explaining all the relevant facts that it explained, it successfully faces some of the anomalies that the previous theory will not be able to realize. Learning theories make up a varied set of theoretical frameworks that often share aspects and issues, or even assume completely contradictory postulates.

Studies on learning theories have not followed a parallel evolution in their development to those of learning. Both the term learning and theory are difficult to define, hence the authors do not agree on the definitions of learning or theories.

Initially, there was no concern for developing theories about learning. Around 1940, a theoretical concern arose characterized by the effort to build systematic applications that would give unity to the learning phenomena and thus learning systems and theories began to appear, although the term theory was used with little rigor. At the beginning of the 1950-1960 decade there was a change in the studies on learning theories, given the fact that a large part of the systems of the previous stage did not fulfill one of the functions of the whole theory, such as totalizing and finalize laws.

In order to provide a solid empirical basis, current studies of learning focus, rather than on theory building, on obtaining detailed descriptions of behavior in concrete situations.

The current situation of learning theories are as follows:

1. Associative, associationist or conditioning theories. They are based on the stimulus-response and reinforcement-contiguity scheme. Functionalist theory. They conceive learning as the adaptive process of the organism to the environment through a series of psychic activities or dynamic functions. Structuralist theories. They explain learning as a chain of interrelated processes directed at the formations of mental structures. Psychoanalytic theories. Based on Freudian psychology, they have influenced learning theories developed by some behaviorists such as the theory of innate pressures. Non-directive theories. They focus learning on the self and the experiences that the individual has. Mathematical, stochastic theories.They are fundamentally based on the use of statistics for the analysis of the different stimuli (mainly social) involved in learning. There are many studies in this field, theories focused on phenomena or on particular areas and classes of behavior, such as curiosities, reinforcement, punishment, verbal processes, etc. This trend along with mathematics has gained a great momentum today Cognitive theories Behavioral or behaviorist theory.This trend along with mathematics has gained a great momentum today Cognitive theories Behavioral or behaviorist theory.This trend along with mathematics has gained a great momentum today Cognitive theories Behavioral or behaviorist theory.

From how to teach to think derive theories of philosophical currents of learning.

Constructivist

Constructivism: actually covers a broad spectrum of theories about cognition that are based on the fact that knowledge exists in the mind as an internal representation of an external reality. Jean Piaget considers that the structures of thought are built, since nothing is given at the beginning. Piaget called his theory "genetic constructivism" in which he explains the development of knowledge in the child as a process of development of intellectual mechanisms.

This occurs in a series of stages, which are defined by the constant order of succession and by the hierarchy of intellectual structures that respond to an integrative mode of evolution.

Sensory-motor thinking stage: from 0 to 2 years approximately

It begins with birth, the initial elements are the reflections of the newborn, which are transformed into a complicated structure of schemes that allow exchanges between the subject and reality to take place, which allow the child to differentiate between the "I" and the world of objects.

This stage was divided by Piaget into six substages:

1. The construction of knowledge begins with the exercise of innate reflexes (from 0 to 1 month). Development of the schemes by exercise and coordination (from 1 to 4 months). The discovery of processings (from 4 to 8 months). Intentional behavior (8 to 12 months) Exploration of new media (12 to 18 months) Mental representation (18 to 24 months)

Preoperative thinking stage: 2 to 7 years

It occurs with the emergence of the symbolic function in which the child begins to make use of thoughts about facts or objects not perceptible at that moment.

Specific operations stage: 7 to 12 years

It begins when the child is able to use intuitions. The operations are concrete since they directly concern concrete objects, and it is considered a transition stage between direct action and the more general logical structures that appear in the following period.

Stage of formal operations: 11 to 15 years

It is characterized by the elaboration of hypotheses and the reasoning about the propositions without considering the objects. This structure of thought is built in preadolescence and it is when it begins to combine objects systematically. Around the concept of teaching, for Piagetians there are two complementary topics: spontaneous activity of the child and indirect teaching.

Jean Piaget, a biologist by training with a special preference for problems of a philosophical nature and mainly on those related to the topic of knowledge, considers that the structures of thought are built, since nothing is given at the beginning.

Structures are built by interaction between the activities of the subject and the reactions of the object. Rather, it falls on the very actions that the subject has performed on the objects, and consists of abstracting from those actions, through a game of "assimilations" and "accommodations", the elements necessary for their integration into new structures and each time more complex.

Piaget called his theory "genetic constructivism", in it he explained the development of knowledge in the child as a process of development of intellectual mechanisms. This development occurs in a series of stages or stages, which are defined by the constant order of succession and by the hierarchy of intellectual structures that respond to an integrative mode of evolution.

Regarding the concept of teaching, for Piagetians there are two complementary topics that need to be highlighted: the child's spontaneous activity and indirect teaching.

In relation to the spontaneous activity of the child, the constructivist conception is closely linked to the great current of the active school in pedagogy, which was developed by such notable pedagogues as Decroly, Montessori, Dewey and Ferriere.

Education must promote the student's cognitive development, by promoting their moral and intellectual autonomy. From this perspective the student is seen as an active constructor of his own knowledge. For Piagetians, the student must act at all times in the school classroom.

In a particular way, it is considered that the type of activities that should be promoted in children are those of the self-initiated type (that emerge freely from the student. In addition, the student must be seen as a subject that has a specific level of cognitive development. an apprentice who possesses a certain body of knowledge which determines his actions and attitudes.

Therefore it is necessary to know in what period of intellectual development the students are and take this information as basic. According to the psychogenetic approach, the teacher is a promoter of the development and autonomy of the learners. You must know in depth the problems and characteristics of learning and the stages of cognitive development in general.

Its fundamental role consists in promoting an atmosphere of reciprocity, respect and self-confidence in the child, giving the students the opportunity for self-structuring learning, mainly through indirect teaching and the presentation of cognitive problems and conflicts.

Cognitive

Cognitive theories focus on the study of the internal processes that lead to learning. He is interested in the internal phenomena and processes that occur in the individual when he learns, how the information to be learned enters, how the individual is transformed, he considers learning as a process in which cognitive structures change, due to their interaction with environmental factors.

These theories can in turn be classified into:

Gestalt theory and phenomenological psychology

Representatives: Kofka, Köhler, Vhertheimer, Maslow and Rogers.

Gestalt psychology is a current of modern psychology, emerged in Germany at the beginning of the 20th century, and whose most recognized exponents have been the theorists Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, Kurt Koffka and Kurt Lewin.

The term Gestalt comes from German and was first introduced by Christian von Ehrenfels. It does not have a unique translation, although it is generally understood as 'form'; however, it could also be translated as 'figure', 'configuration', 'structure' or 'creation'.

The mind configures, through certain laws, the elements that reach it through sensory channels (perception) or memory (thought, intelligence and problem solving).

In our experience of the environment, this configuration has a primary character over the elements that make it up, and the sum of the latter alone could not lead us, therefore, to an understanding of mental functioning. This approach is illustrated with the axiom: The whole is greater than the sum of its parts, with which this psychological school has been identified more frequently.

Genetic-cognitive psychology

Being its representatives: Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner, Ausubel, Inhelder.

Learning consists essentially of the categorization of new concepts (which occurs to simplify interaction with reality and facilitate action). Categorization is closely related to processes such as the selection of information, generation of propositions, simplification, decision-making, and construction and verification of hypotheses.

The learner interacts with reality by organizing entries according to their own categories, possibly creating new ones, or modifying existing ones. The categories determine different concepts. It is for all this that learning is an active process, of association and construction.

Bruner has distinguished three basic ways by which man represents his mental models and reality. These are the acting (idle), iconic, and symbolic modes:

• Acting representation (inactive): consists of representing things through the immediate reaction of the person. This type of representation occurs markedly in the first years of the person, Bruner has related it to Piaget's sensory-motor phase in which action is fused with external experience. Iconic representation: consists of representing things through an image or scheme spatial independent of the action. However, such a representation still bears some resemblance to the thing represented. The choice of the image is not arbitrary. Symbolic representation: It consists of representing a thing by means of an arbitrary symbol that in its form is not related to the thing represented. For example, the number three would be iconically represented by, say, three marbles, while symbolically a 3 would suffice.Symbolic representation, through language, can be used to describe states, images, and things, as well as their mutual relationships. It can also be used to prescribe actions.

David P. Ausubel, theorist of cognitive learning describes two types of learning.

1. Repetitive learning: It involves the sole memorization of the information to be learned, since its relationship with that present in the cognitive structure is carried out arbitrarily.Significant learning: The information is understood by the student and it is said that there is a substantial relationship between the new information and that present in the cognitive structure.

The two ways of learning are:

1. By reception. The information is provided in its final form and the student is a recipient of it, by discovery. In this learning, the student discovers knowledge and only elements are provided to reach it.

Genetic-dialectical psychology

Representatives: Vigotsky, Luria, Leontiev, Rubinstein, Wallon.

Lev Semiónovich Vigotsky, Zone of Proximate Development and Scaffolding.

The zone of proximal development (ZPD) refers to the space, gap or difference between the skills that the child already has and what they can learn through the guidance or support that an adult or a peer can provide. more competent. literacy: this theory presented an important variant through the legacy left before the death of Latin American pedagogue Mercedes Chaves Jaime.

The ZPD concept is based on the relationship between the child's current abilities and their potential. A first level, the child's current performance, consists of working and solving tasks or problems without the help of another, with the name of the actual developmental level. It is this baseline level that is commonly assessed in schools.

The level of potential development is the level of competence that a child can achieve when guided and supported by another person. The difference or gap between these two levels of competence is called the ZPD. The idea of ​​a significant adult (or a peer, such as a classmate) mediating between the task and the child is called scaffolding. This last concept has been quite developed by Jerome Bruner and has been fundamental for the elaboration of his concept of scaffolding in his instructional model.

Information Processing Theory

A new approach known as "cognitive psychology" is being consolidated, the clearest representation of which is "information processing", based on an analogy between the functioning of the human mind and digital computers. This change in orientation affects most of the research fields in psychology (memory, attention, intelligence, etc., even reaching the study of social interaction and emotion)

Representatives: Gagné, Newell, Simón Rodríguez, Mayer, Pascual, Leone.

Another of the cognitivist educational theories is Connectionism.

Connectionism is the result of research in artificial intelligence, neurology and computing to create a model of neural processes. The mind is a natural machine with a network structure where knowledge is found in forms of patterns and relationships between neurons and which are built through experience.

Another theory derived from cognitivism is postmodernism. For postmodernism, thinking is an interpretive activity, rather than the question of creating an internal representation of reality or representing the external world, what is postulated is how interactions with the world are interpreted in a way that has meaning.

Behaviorist

Behaviorism as a scientific discipline applied to the understanding and treatment of psychological problems is located at the beginning of the 20th century. It is a current of psychology whose father is considered Watson, it consists of using experimental procedures to analyze behavior, specifically observable behaviors, and denies any possibility of using subjective methods such as introspection.

It is based on the fact that a response occurs to a stimulus, the body reacts to a stimulus from the environment and issues a response. This current considers external observation as the only means of study, thus consolidating a scientific psychology.

Behaviorism has its origin in English socialism, American functionalism and in Darwin's theory of evolution, since these currents are fixed in the conception of the individual as an organism that adapts to the environment (or environment).

The "classical" behaviorist theory is related to the study of stimuli and corresponding responses. This psychological line has found its modification through the contributions of BF Skinner, who, taking the fundamental elements of classical behaviorism, incorporated new elements such as the concept of operant conditioning, which addresses learned responses.

Reinforcing stimuli are those that follow the response and have the effect of increasing the probability that the responses are emitted in the presence of the stimuli.

Techniques for the acquisition, maintenance and retention of skills and knowledge:

Reinforcement: It consists of presenting a reinforcing stimulus, followed by a response. The reinforcer is the stimulus that increases the probability of a response occurring.

Molding by successive approximations: It begins with the first link providing reinforcers before the emission of adequate responses, once the correct answer is given to the first link, it continues with the next, acting in the same way until reaching the terminal response.

Generalization and discrimination: It occurs when a person, before similar but not identical stimuli, emits the same response; or when similar responses are issued to the same stimulus. In discrimination, one responds differentially to stimuli.

Modeling: It consists of modeling (exhibiting) the behavior that you want someone to learn, making evident the consequence that follows the behavior exhibited.

Techniques for eliminating behaviors:

Extinction: It consists of the withdrawal of the reinforcer that maintains a behavior.

Punishment: It is a procedure by means of which a negative, aversive stimulus is provided, after the emission of a response.

Differential reinforcement: It consists of the selection of a behavior incompatible with the behavior to be eliminated.

Time out: This technique consists of suspending or withdrawing the subject for a time "x" from the situation in which he or she manifests undesirable behaviors.

2.1 Complex thinking

The notion of complex thinking was coined by the French philosopher and sociologist of Judeo-Spanish (Sephardic) origin, born in Paris on July 8, 1921, his birth name is Edgar Nahum.

Edgar Morin describes the ability to interconnect different dimensions of the real. Faced with the emergence of multidimensional, interactive facts or objects with random or random components, the subject is forced to develop a thinking strategy that is neither reductive nor totalizing, but reflective. Morin called this ability complex thinking.

This concept is opposed to the disciplinary division and promotes a transdisciplinary and holistic approach, although without abandoning the notion of the constituent parts of the whole. Systemics, cybernetics, and information theories provide support for complex thinking.

It can be said that complex thinking is based on three fundamental principles: dialogue (the coherence of the system appears with the paradox), recursion (the ability of feedback to modify the system) and hologram (the part in the whole and the all in part).

Three principles of complex thinking according to Morin:

1. The dialogical principle. This principle associates two terms that are both complementary and antagonistic. It allows us to maintain duality within unity. Examples: order and disorder, which are enemies; one suppresses the other but, in certain cases, they collaborate and produce organization and complexity.

2. The principle of organizational recursion. A recursive process is one in which products and effects are, at the same time, causes and producers of what produces them. The recursive idea breaks with the linear idea of ​​cause / effect, of product / producer, of structure / superstructure.

Examples: the bulb that is produced and, at the same time, a producer of electrical energy. As individuals we are products of a process of reproduction, but once we are produced, we become producers of a process that will continue.

3. The hologram principle. This principle seeks to overcome the principle of "holism" and reductionism. Holism sees only the whole; reductionism sees only parts.

The hologram principle sees the parts in the whole and the whole in the parts. The hologram principle operates in the biological and sociological worlds. Example: each cell in our body has all the genetic information of that organism. This principle is the idea formulated by Pascal: "I cannot conceive the whole without conceiving the parts and I cannot conceive the parts without conceiving the whole." We can enrich the knowledge of the parts by the whole, and of the whole by the parts, in the same knowledge-producing movement.

Complex thinking, therefore, is a strategy or form of thought that has a globalizing or encompassing intention of the phenomena but that, at the same time, recognizes the specificity of the parts. The key is to rearticulate knowledge through the application of the aforementioned principles.

Everything related to complex thinking is linked to epistemology (the doctrine of the methods of scientific knowledge).

The object of study of epistemology or gnoseology is the production and validation of scientific knowledge through the analysis of different criteria.

Edgar Morin sees the world as an inseparable whole, where our individual spirit has ambiguous, disordered knowledge, which needs feedback actions and proposes a multidisciplinary and multi-referenced approach to achieve the construction of thought that develops with a deep analysis of elements of certainty. These elements are based on the complexity characterized by having many parts that form an intricate and difficult to understand whole.

2.2 Divergent and convergent thinking

When we talk about creativity, we have to take into account two types of thinking. This classification of thought was carried out by Guilford. Creative thinking can be divided into: convergent and divergent.

Convergent

Convergent thinking moves in a single direction seeking a specific or conventional answer. Therefore, you find a single solution to problems that are generally known. It can also be called logical, conventional, rational, or vertical thinking.

Convergent Thinking is a term coined by Joy Paul Guilford (1897 - 1987) was an American psychologist, known for his studies on intelligence with his model of Structure of intelligence. As opposed to divergent thinking also known as lateral thinking.

JP Guilford proposes an intelligence model that allows its factorial analysis whose dimensions are three:

• Intellectual process: activity carried out by a person to convert information into knowledge Intellectual product: conformation or organization of information according to an order of complexity Information content: it is an integral model that considers both intelligence and information to be able to further define the concept of mental ability, which is the result of the combination of a process, a product and an information content. Thanks to this model, it is possible to achieve applications to measure and develop intellectual skills as fundamental tools of learning.

We speak of convergent thinking as one in which we use the ability to order, discriminate, evaluate and select among the available alternatives. In general, it is used to solve very well defined and bounded problems where the solution is almost unique. Thought moves in a single known direction, univocal and linear, in a single plane, as if it were a test of five alternatives with a single correct answer.

Although we know that life is almost never like this and that there are often many answers to problems, this type of thinking allows us to choose the response that divergent thinking developed in the first place and that according to our knowledge and experiences is adapted appropriately to the problem in question.

Divergent thinking

This is the name of a type or form of thought that seeks to analyze problems from different perspectives, it is not restricted to unique looks, to those traditionally accepted, it even opens up to ideas that may seem absurd at first. Divergent thinking always acts by removing established assumptions, dismantling known schemes, making rigid positions more flexible, and always opening unlimited paths towards the original, however unusual it may seem.

It is the kind of thinking that Edward de Bono has called "Lateral Thinking" and that he has so masterfully developed in his books.

Lateral thinking; It is an imaginative and anarchic way of reasoning in which, often, new ideas are given that can also be simple, solid and effective, thus contrasts with the orthodox and uncreative vertical, logical thinking process.

De Bono defines lateral thinking as a set of thinking methods that allow changing concepts, perception and increasing creativity.

It is a collection of divergent thinking theories, which are not immediately obvious and cannot be followed, using only traditional step-by-step logic, and which focus on generating new ideas, changing concepts and perspectives.

There are four key elements in the lateral thinking process for problem solving:

Checking assumptions

When approaching a problem with vertical thinking, the solution may not be found. Usually, things are deduced that are feasible but that surely are not the answer sought. With an "open mind" you face each new problem that arises

Ask the right questions

The most important thing in lateral thinking is knowing what questions to ask. When using this method of problem solving, start by asking general questions to properly frame the problem. Then, examine the known data with more specific questions, examining the most obvious hypotheses, until reaching an alternative vision close to the solution.

Creativity

Imagination is another key tool of lateral or creative thinking. The habit of always seeing problems from the same perspective does not always help to solve them. It is then about approaching them creatively from another angle. The lateral perspective will be more effective in solving seemingly unconventional issues.

Logical thinking

To achieve well-developed lateral thinking, it is necessary to refine the analysis in a logical way, deduction and the discipline of reasoning, since without these elements lateral thinking would be a longing thought, which is only limited to extracting eccentric ideas.

In short, while divergent thinking creates a multiple number of creative options, some even absurd, convergent thinking selects one of the many alternatives offered as the most suitable and enables its implementation.

Both types of thinking are absolutely necessary, one is not better than the other, and in creative problem solving both have a crucial impact and significance.

2.3 Deductive thinking - Inductive

Thought is a mental creation, which elaborates responses, abstractions, or generates art. Reasoning is a mental process that leads to drawing conclusions after establishing certain premises, and can be (among the main ones) inductive (part of particular premises to draw a general conclusion) or deductive (part of general or universal premises that are so by These are statements that make the essence of the object to which they refer; for them, to arrive at particular conclusions).

Deductive

The deductive method is a scientific method that considers that the conclusion is implicit within the premises. This means that the conclusions are a necessary consequence of the premises: when the premises are true and deductive reasoning is valid, there is no way that the conclusion is not true.

The first descriptions of deductive reasoning were made by philosophers in Ancient Greece, including Aristotle. It should be noted that the word deduction comes from the verb deduct (from the Latin deducĕre), which refers to the extraction of consequences from a proposition.

The deductive method manages to infer something observed from a general law. This differentiates it from the so-called inductive method, which is based on the formulation of laws based on the facts that are observed.

There are those who believe, like the philosopher Francis Bacon, that induction is preferable to deduction, since it allows us to move from particularities to something general.

Among the examples that we can use to understand more exactly what the term deductive method means would be the following: if we start from the statement that all English are punctual and we know that John is English, we can conclude by saying that, therefore, John is punctual.

In the field of Mathematics, much use is also made of the aforementioned deductive method. Thus, in this matter we can find examples that prove it: if A is equal to B and B is equal to C, we can determine that A and C are equal.

When talking about this deductive method we have to emphasize that it, in which thinking goes from the general to the particular, makes use of a series of tools and instruments that allow achieving the proposed objectives of reaching the required point or clarification.

In this sense, we can state that summaries are frequently used, since they are the documents that allow a clear and concise focus on the essentials of a matter. However, it should also be noted that, in the same way, the synthesis and the synopsis are used.

But the list of procedures and tools goes much further. Thus, it also could not ignore maps, graphs, diagrams or demonstrations. The latter in particular help especially to show that a principle or a specific law is true, and for this we start from all the established truths as well as the logical relationships.

The deductive method can be divided according to whether it is direct and of immediate conclusion (in cases in which the judgment is produced from a single premise without others that intervene) or indirect and of mediate conclusion (the major premise contains the universal proposition, while that the minor includes the particular proposition: the conclusion, therefore, is the result of the comparison between both).

In all cases, researchers who use the deductive method begin their work by making assumptions (consistent with each other) that are limited to incorporating the main characteristics of the phenomena. The work continues with a logical deduction procedure that ends in the enunciation of the general laws.

Inductive

The inductive method or inductivism is that scientific method that obtains general conclusions from particular premises. It is the most common scientific method, in which four essential steps can be distinguished: observation of the facts for their registration; the classification and study of these facts; the inductive derivation that starts from the facts and allows us to reach a generalization; and the contrast.

This means that, after a first stage of observation, analysis and classification of the facts, it is possible to postulate a hypothesis that provides a solution to the problem posed.

It goes from the particular to the general and the new knowledge is probabilistic in nature. It starts from the observation of particular cases, and a general law is formulated for all those unobserved cases, so this law has a probabilistic nature, that is, we can never be sure that it is totally true.

Inductive reasoning can be complete (in this case it is close to deductive reasoning because its conclusions do not provide more data than those provided by the premises) or incomplete (the conclusion transcends the data provided by the premise; as there are more data, there will be a greater probability of truth. The truth of the premises, however, does not ensure that the conclusion is true).

Example of complete inductive reasoning:

Ricardo and Anahí have three dogs: Pancho, Ronaldo and Tito.

Pancho is black.

Ronaldo is black.

Titus is black.

Therefore, all of Ricardo and Anahí's dogs are black.

Example of incomplete inductive reasoning:

Pancho is a black dog.

Ronaldo is a black dog.

Tito is a black dog.

Therefore, all dogs are black.

As can be seen, in the second example all the premises are true, but the conclusion is false.

Inductive thinking typical of experimental sciences, such as Natural Sciences, which use the scientific method, of which the inductive method is part along with the deductive and analytical method, is one that starts from particular premises that can be formulated from experience sensitive, with data collected from reality, in order to draw general conclusions from them, the certainty of which is never total, except (which is very unlikely) that the cases to be observed are exhausted.

It was the method used by Francis Bacon (1561-1626), father of empiricism. In the second half of the 19th century the inductive method was highly questioned for its fallibility.

Therefore, inductive thinking lacks rigor, when applying the consequences of what is observed to all members of the species to which the object studied belongs, although thanks to it theories can be established that will be valid as long as no others appear that demonstrate their falsehood. and replace them.

It is very important to complement inductive thinking with deductive thinking, which follows the reverse path (from the general to the particular) to check the veracity of the hypotheses and theories presented.

The inductive method is often confused with the deductive one. But the difference is very simple: while the first bets on the establishment of a series of laws based on what is observed, the second what it does is something inferior based on a general law.

2.4 Critical thinking

What is it?	characteristics	Own skills	Examples
It is thinking and having the ideas organized in a logical and rational way when issuing affirmations of judgments with truthfulness and all this implies self-questioning and evaluating having evidence of the situation that alludes to the thematic axis of relevance or problem resolution.	The reason is the result of adequate attention and collection of relevant data Based on criteria that increase the ability to solve problems. They require originality proposed by COL (pre-reflective and reflective). Expressing oneself clearly and ordering thought in structured sequences. Check responses, know what is being done and what should have been done before reaching any conclusions. A destructive component in which what is discovered to be true is doubted and even rejected. And another constructive, in which a response or proposition is even generated if it is known to be true. The development and self-appropriation of the operations of our intentional conscious activity.	Weigh the evidence, judge. Define terms to develop concepts. Eliminate fallacies Formulate causal explanations with critical questions Formulation and comparison of original models. Theory evaluation and synthesis. Logical, linguistic, statistical, and research or questioning skills. See the parts-whole and whole-parts connections. To make connections and distinctions. Anticipate consequences by working with analogies and contradictions.	Self-owning (self-appropriated) people. Explain a history topic in which the children have to make inferences about what would happen if this problem arose in this century, how would the resolution be and what social-economic aspects would be favorable and unsuccessful. analyze what it means to teach social practices of language at the basic level, observe the connections and distinctions at each level and formulate their own definitions, discover the parameters by which primary education is governed and evaluate each of its parts so that formulate new models that they create are necessary to include, then compare models to judge.

2.5 Creative thinking

What is it?	characteristics	Synonyms	Indicators	Creative Personality Traits
Process that requires presenting a problem to the mind clearly (either imagining it, visualizing it), is the generation of new ideas or associations between concepts, which produce original solutions.	Work in a precise, constant and intense way. It involves flexibility (Perkins, 1984), or what they call divergent thinking (Guilford, 1956) or lateral thinking (De Bono, 1970). They include selective coding, combining and comparing information. Related to the terms art, process, attitude, aptitude, ability, quality, discovery. It involves risk when considering new alternatives, rejecting old solutions.	Innovation and imagination.ü OriginalityInvention Display Intuition Discovery, creativity is the ability to bring something new to life.	Fluidity, Originality, Flexibility - Elaboration, Concentration, Sensitivity. Intuition and Imagination. Regression, Synthesis and Evaluation. Boundary Expansion Transformation. Metaphorical thinking. Definition of problems for the prediction of solutions.	The creative subject knows what to capture. They show a certain confidence in their product and a high capacity for self-criticism. They break structures without fear of being judged. They work with a perseverance and effort that many individuals may consider irrational. In a personal context, it means daring to take new paths, constantly re-create yourself, manage your own life, be productive, competitive and self-actualizing.

2.6 The six thinking hats

Edward de Bono (born May 19, 1933) is a prolific writer, Maltese psychologist from the University of Oxford, trainer and instructor in the subject of thought. He is perhaps most famous for having coined the term "lateral thinking" in his book Six Thinking Hats.

De Bono has created several tools to improve exploration skills and attitudes, such as "PNI" (Positive, Negative, Interesting), "CTF" (Consider all factors) and "CyS" (Consequences and Sequels). Many of them are based on the premise that it must be taught to think explicitly and intentionally, as it defends when separating the possible ways of thinking by colors and specifying them in different "hats", which can be used to act according to the objective of each one of them:

White hat: White is the color of neutrality and allows a statement to be made as a belief at a credible level, it shows the tentative, hypothetical and deals with usable information, therefore the expression in general is acceptable.

Thinking in a more objective and neutral way possible, this has to do with facts, figures, needs and information gaps.

Red hat: To express our feelings, without the need for justification. It represents the emotional, the intuition, the use of this hat allows the thinker to freely say what he feels, it allows whoever wears it to express an opinion or intuition without having to justify it. Thus, without further ado, the thinker wearing this hat should never make the attempt to justify feelings or to base them on logic.

Black hat: It is a logical-negative but not emotional thought, it highlights the risks, the pessimistic vision. Why is this not going to work? Being critical in a negative way and thinking about why something couldn't go right. It is the hat of judgment, logic and caution. It is the most valuable hat. It is not a negative hat, it is used to indicate why a suggestion does not fit the facts, the experience, the system used or the policy that is being followed.

Yellow hat: Thought is positive and constructive, its color symbolizes the brightness of the sun, luminosity and optimism, it deals with positive evaluation and covers a positive spectrum that goes from the logical and practical aspect to dreams, visions and hopes.

He inquires and explores for value and benefit, then seeks to find logical support for this value and benefit. It tries to express well-founded optimism, but does not limit itself to this, unless other types of optimism are adequately qualified. From him come concrete proposals and suggestions, he deals with operability and making things happen, efficiency is his main objective.

Green hat: It opens up creative possibilities and is closely related to your idea of ​​lateral or divergent thinking, it is the color of fertility, growth and plants; for that reason it deals with creativity for new ideas and ways of approaching things, to discard old ideas and find better ones. Addressing change is a deliberate and focused effort in direction.

Blue hat: It is the one that controls the rest of the hats; control the times and the order of them. This is the hat of the global view and process control. It does not focus on the matter itself but on thinking about the matter.

Blue is the sky that covers the entire sky, control over the global vision: think about the way of thinking, instruct how to organize our mind, elaborate plans with details about the sequence of the results.

The Six Hats represent six ways of thinking and should be considered as directions of thought, the hats are used proactively and not reactively. The method promotes greater exchange of ideas among more people. Anyone is able to contribute to the exploration without affecting the ego of others.

The key is that each hat is a direction of thought, the theoretical justification for using the Six Thought Hats is that:

• Encourages parallel thinking Encourages full-range thinking Separates ego from performance

The book Six Thinking Hats (de Bono, 1985) explains this system, although it has had some updates and changes in the execution of the method.

conclusion

Thinking skills within the workplace allow people to perform their duties better, develop in more effective personal relationships, which leads them to achieve synergy, the exercise of more effective leadership and that is through example. Problem solving and important decision-making within the performance of work functions, involve critical and logical processes, which by observing the various situations that arise and obtaining the necessary information, will have successful results.

Thought is a process of each person, and is determined by the external and internal environments that surround them. Thought processes are helpful in learning and creativity. They are the active components of the mind and therefore are basic elements for building, organizing and using knowledge.

The thought processes are transformed into procedures and through practice lead to the development of the person's thinking skills. These skills are applied to acquire knowledge and use it on a daily basis, manifesting at all times.

The development of thinking and learning are integral. They contemplate the acquisition of knowledge and the achievement of the faculties, disposition, attitudes and values ​​required by people to successfully carry out a wide variety of activities and to act in a variety of environments and circumstances.

Through the development of thought it is possible to broaden, clarify, organize and reorganize perception and experience, achieve clearer views of problems, situations, deliberately direct attention, regulate the use of reason and emotion, develop systems and schemes for process information, develop own models and processing styles, learn autonomously, deal with novelty, monitor and improve the quality of thinking.

It is really very difficult to cover the concept of thought with a simple definition. Thought being philosophy is an enigma, something very difficult to understand from a single point of view, it is easier to acquire a type of relationship with thought that is much simpler and more distant than in a philosophical way, because in this way the enigma is better solved that it produces for the individual.

There are two kinds of thoughts, each of them legitimate and necessary. They being the thought that calculates, and the thought that meditates. The first is the thinking of a scientist, and the second of a philosopher.

The thought that meditates has been raised in the question of being since the task of the philosopher is "to conceive what is." As well as the other question is what is to be ?, because all the philosophy that has been given since the Greeks has been in the deepest and most original sense to get to define what is and how to name thinking.

This is how Edward de Bono developed the concept and tools of lateral thinking. What's so special is that, he made it practical and available to everyone from age five to adults.

Edward de Bono's special contribution has been to take the mystical issue of creativity and, for the first time in history, put the issue on a solid footing. It has shown that creativity is a necessary behavior in a self-organizing information system.

Traditional thinking has to do with analysis, judgment, and argumentation. In a stable world this was enough because it was enough to identify normal situations and apply them. But globally there is a great need for thinking that is creative and constructive and that can design the way forward.

Many of the world's major problems cannot be solved by identifying and removing the cause. There is a need to design different routes that take us to the same place so that each subject that transits in the development of learning can use the one that best suits their information process and is not isolated or lagged in the knowledge that is born day by day, in this globalized world.

Bibliography

• Elena Bodrova, Deborah J. Leong. " Tools of the mind ”. Editorials: SEP Pearson.Ferreiro, E. (1999): «Jean Piaget and the discovery of infantile thought». Avance y Perspectiva, 18: 427-34. Barquet Rodríguez, Irma Angélica, (2003) Diploma Manual Emotional Intelligence and Thinking Skills, modules. Morin (2004): The Method, Volume 6. The Ethics, Paris, Seuil, col. Points, p. 224.Edgar Morín. Introduction to complex thinking. Barcelona, ​​Gedisa Editorial, 1998. De Bono, Edward (2003). Six thinking hats. Ediciones Granica.De Bono Edward. 2006. The Lateral Thought. Editorial Paidós Ibérica SAAusubel PD Educational Psychology. Editorial Trillas México 1981.Chadwick BC Learning Theories for the Teacher, Editorial Universitaria Santiago de Chile 1984. Anaya Nieto D. Diagnosis in education. Ed.Sanz y Torres Madrid 2002 Dictionary of Educational Sciences. Edit. Santillana Ginsburg, K. (1977). Piaget and the theory of intellectual development. Madrid, Spain: Prentice Hall. Ferriere, A. (1982) The active school. Barcelona, ​​Spain: Herder.

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