Methods and techniques of investigation

The research methods and scientific research techniques, what they consist of, what is their importance and their characteristics are explained below, the text is accompanied by two video courses through which the different concepts are emphasized and explained.

Scientific research

Scientific research is defined as the series of steps that lead to the search for knowledge through the application of research methods and techniques, it is said that there are three types:

Exploratory investigation

It is the investigation that tries to give us a general vision of an approximate type regarding a certain reality. This type of research is carried out especially when the chosen topic has been little explored and recognized and when even on it it is difficult to formulate precise hypotheses or of a certain generality.

It also usually arises when a new phenomenon appears, which, precisely because of its novelty, does not yet admit a systematic description or when the resources available to the researcher are insufficient to undertake a deeper work.

Descriptive research

His primary concern is to describe some fundamental characteristics of homogeneous sets of phenomena, using systematic criteria that make it possible to reveal their structure or behavior. In this way, the notes that characterize the reality studied can be obtained.

Explanatory research

It consists of those works that focus on determining the origins or causes of a certain set of phenomena, where the objective is to know why certain events occur through the delimitation of the existing causal relationships or, at least, of the conditions in that they are produced.

This is the type of research that deepens our knowledge of reality the most, because it explains the reason, the why of things, and is therefore more complex and delicate because the risk of making mistakes increases considerably.

Research methodology

The term methodology is composed of the word method and the Greek noun logos which means judgment, study. Research methodology can be defined as the description, analysis and critical appraisal of research methods. It is the instrument that links the subject with the object of the investigation, without the methodology it is almost impossible to arrive at the logic that leads to scientific knowledge.

Investigation method

The word method is derived from the Greek meta: towards, along; and odos that means path, so we can deduce which method means the most suitable path to achieve an end. We can also say that the method is the set of logical procedures through which scientific problems are raised and the hypotheses and the investigated work instruments are put to the test. The method is a necessary element in science; since without it it would not be easy to show whether an argument is valid.

The various kinds of research methods

We can establish two large classes of research methods: logical methods and empirical methods. The first, logical methods, are all those that are based on the use of thought in its functions of deduction, analysis and synthesis, while the empirical methods approach the knowledge of the object through their direct knowledge and the use of experience, among them we find observation and experimentation.

1. Empirical methods of scientific research

The empirical research methods involve a whole series of practical procedures with the object and the means of investigation that allow to reveal the fundamental characteristics and essential relationships of the object; that are accessible to sensory contemplation.

The empirical research methods represent a level in the research process whose content comes mainly from experience, which is subjected to a certain rational elaboration and expressed in a specific language.

1.1 Method of scientific observation

Scientific observation as a method consists of direct perception of the research object. Investigative observation is the universal instrument of the scientist. Observation allows knowing reality through direct perception of objects and phenomena.

Observation, as a procedure, can be used at different moments of a more complex investigation: in its initial stage it is used in the diagnosis of the problem to be investigated and is very useful in the design of the investigation.

In the course of the investigation, it can become a procedure of the method used to test the hypothesis. At the end of the investigation, observation can predict the trends and development of phenomena of a higher order of generalization.

Scientific observation has the following qualities, which differentiate it from spontaneous and casual observation.

• Scientific observation is conscious; and is oriented towards a specific objective or purpose. The observer must have a thorough knowledge of the process, phenomenon or object to be observed, in order to be able, within its set of characteristics, to select those aspects that are susceptible to being observed and that contribute to the demonstration of the hypothesis. Scientific research must be carefully planned where it takes into account in addition to the objectives, the object and subject of the observation, the means with which it is carried out and the conditions or natural or artificial context where the phenomenon occurs, as well as the properties and qualities of the object to be observed.Scientific observation must be objective: it must be stripped as much as possible of any element of subjectivity,avoiding that their value judgments can be reflected in the registered information. For this, it is necessary to guarantee:

1. 1. Through observation, the information on each of the concepts or variables defined in the working hypothesis is collected in the model. When this is fulfilled we say that there is validity in the observation. The observation guide document must be sufficiently precise and clear to guarantee that different observers when applying it, at a given moment, understand and apply it in the same way. When this requirement is fulfilled we say that the observation is reliable.

Importance of observation

Historically, observation was the first scientific method used, for a long time it was the basic way of obtaining scientific information. Observation, as a scientific method, allows us to obtain knowledge about the behavior of the research object as it occurs in reality, it is a way of accessing direct and immediate information about the process, phenomenon or object that is being investigated.

Observation stimulates curiosity, encourages the development of new facts that may be of scientific interest, provokes the posing of problems and the corresponding hypothesis.

Observation can be used in the company of other procedures or techniques (the interview, the questionnaire, etc.), which allows a comparison of the results obtained in different ways, which are completed and allow greater precision in the information collected.

Observation as a scientific method makes it possible to investigate the phenomenon directly, in its most external manifestation, in its development, without reaching its essence, its causes, hence, in practice, together with observation, we work systematically with other methods or procedures such as: measurement and experiment. Of course, to get to the deep essence of the object the use of theoretical methods is necessary.

In both the social, natural and technical sciences, observation, as a scientific method, can be applied in different ways:

• Simple observation: it is carried out with certain spontaneity, by a person with an adequate qualification for it and this must be carried out, in a conscious and unprejudiced way.Systematic observation: it requires adequate control that guarantees the greatest objectivity, the observation being carried out repeatedly and by different observers, including to guarantee the uniformity of the results of this Participatory observation: in it the observer is part of the observed group and participates in it during the duration of the observation Non-participant observation: the researcher performs the observation from outside, is not part of the investigated group. Open observation: where the subjects and objects of the research know that they are going to be observed.When this type of observation is used, it is previously analyzed whether the fact that those observed previously know that their behavior is observed, this may affect the results of the observation. In the positive case, it is necessary to carry out covert, closed or secret observation. Covert observation: the people who are the object of the investigation do not know it. The observer is hidden, he is assisted by technical means which in most cases are not easily obtained. This research is more objective Organization of observation. It is determined by many factors such as: type of object on which it is investigated, personal characteristics of the observer, methods, procedures and techniques required for observation, the properties and qualities of the object to be observed,means available for observation and others.

Once all these factors have been taken into account, an observation plan is elaborated where it is specified: object, magnitudes and variables to observe, duration of the observation and the expected result. From this an observation program is elaborated, determined by the questions that have to be clarified through it.

1.2. The experimental method

The experiment within the empirical methods is the most complex and efficient; This arises as a result of the development of technique and human knowledge, as a consequence of the effort made by man to penetrate the unknown through his transforming activity.

The experiment is the empirical method of studying an object, in which the researcher creates the necessary or adequate conditions for the existing ones, to clarify the properties and relationships of the object, which are useful in research.

The experiment is the activity carried out by the researcher where:

• Isolates the object and the properties under study from the influence of other non-essential factors that may mask its essence in the opinion of the researcher Reproduces the object of study under controlled conditions Modifies the conditions under which the process or phenomenon of planned way.

The objective of the experiment can be: to clarify certain laws, relationships or detect a certain property in the object; to verify a hypothesis, a theory, a model. The same experiment can be carried out for various purposes.

Experiment is always inextricably linked to theory. In theory the problem is essentially formulated as a theoretical problem, a problem that refers to the idealized object of the theory and that is experienced in order to verify on a dialectical plane, the theoretical concepts belonging to the theory.

The conditions surrounding the object are those natural or artificial conditions created by the researcher under which the experiment is carried out with the appropriate means and instruments for it.

The fact that in the experiment the researcher causes the process or phenomenon that he wishes to address, makes the experimental method present a whole series of advantages over the other empirical methods, these are:

• Separation and isolation of the properties, in which it pays attention for its study, from the environment that can influence them. Possibility of studying the process or phenomenon under varied conditions. Reproduce the experiment.

Experimentation in the Scientific Research Process creates the possibility of exhaustively studying the links or relationships between certain aspects of it and highlighting the conditioning causes of the need for said phenomenon.

2. Logical methods of scientific investigation

2.1. Deductive method

Through this, the principles discovered are applied to particular cases, based on a trial link. The role of deduction in research is twofold:

1. First it consists of finding unknown principles, starting from the known ones. A law or principle can be reduced to a more general one that includes it. If a body falls we say that it weighs because it is a particular case of gravitation. It also serves to discover unknown consequences, of known principles. If we know that the formula for speed is v = e / t, we can calculate the speed of an airplane. Mathematics is the deductive science par excellence, based on axioms and definitions.

2.1.1 Direct deductive method - inference or immediate conclusion.

The judgment of a single premise is obtained, that is, a direct conclusion is reached without intermediaries. Example:

"Books are culture"

"Consequently, some cultural manifestations are books"

2.1.2. Indirect deductive method - inference or mediate conclusion - formal.

It needs logical syllogisms, where syllogism is an argument that consists of three propositions, that is, two extremes (premises or terms) are compared with a third to discover the relationship between them. The major premise contains the universal proposition, the minor premise contains the particular proposition, the conclusion results from their comparison. Example:

"The English are punctual"

"William is English"

"Therefore, William is punctual"

2.2. Hypothetico-deductive method

A researcher proposes a hypothesis as a consequence of his inferences from the empirical data set or from more general principles and laws. In the first case, he arrives at the hypothesis through inductive procedures and in a second case through deductive procedures. It is the first way of deductive logical inferences to arrive at particular conclusions from the hypothesis and that later can be verified experimentally.

2.3. Inductive method

It is the reasoning that, starting from particular cases, rises to general knowledge. This method allows the formation of hypotheses, investigation of scientific laws, and demonstrations. The induction can be complete or incomplete.

2.3.1. Complete Induction

The conclusion is drawn from the study of all the elements that make up the research object, that is, it is only possible if we know exactly the number of elements that make up the object of study and also, when we know that generalized knowledge belongs to each one. of the elements of the research object.

The so-called complex demonstrations are forms of inductive reasoning, only in them samples are taken that little by little are articulated until the study by complete induction is achieved. Example:

«When studying the academic performance of the students of the third year of administration, we studied the results of all the students of the course, given that the object of study is relatively small, 25 students. We conclude that the average performance is good. Such a conclusion is possible by analyzing each and every one of the members of the course. "

2.3.2. Incomplete Induction

The elements of the research object cannot be numbered and studied in their entirety, forcing the research subject to resort to taking a representative sample, which allows generalizations.

Example: »the tastes of young Colombians in relation to music»

The incomplete induction method can be of two kinds:

to. Induction method by simple enumeration or probable conclusion. It is a method used in research objects whose elements are very large or infinite. A universal conclusion is inferred by observing that the same character is repeated in a series of homogeneous elements, belonging to the object of investigation, without presenting any case that contradicts or denies the observed common character.

The greater or lesser probability in the application of the method lies in the number of cases that are analyzed, therefore its conclusions cannot be taken as demonstrations of something, but as possibilities of truthfulness. It suffices that a single case appears that denies the conclusion for it to be refuted as false.

b. Scientific induction method. The characters and / or necessary connections of the research object, causal relationships, among others, are studied. This method relies on empirical methods such as observation and experimentation.

Example: "We know that water is a necessary character for all living beings, so we can conclude with certainty that plants need water."

In the induction method we find other methods to find causes from experimental methods, these are proposed by Mill:

• Concordance method: Compare among themselves several cases in which a natural phenomenon occurs and indicate what is repeated in them, as the cause of the phenomenon. Difference method: Several cases are gathered and we observe that a circumstance that does not produce the effect is always missing All other circumstances always remaining, we conclude that what disappears is the cause of what is investigated.Method of concomitant variations: If the variation of one phenomenon is accompanied by the variation of another phenomenon, we conclude that one is the cause of another. of waste: It consists of eliminating from a phenomenon the circumstances whose causes are already known. The circumstance that remains as a residue is considered the cause of the phenomenon. Logical method: It consists of inferring from the similarity of some characteristics between two objects,the probability that the remaining characteristics are also similar. Analogical reasoning is not always valid The historical method: It is linked to the knowledge of the different stages of objects in their chronological succession, in order to know the evolution and development of the object or phenomenon of investigation it is necessary to reveal its history, the main stages its development and the fundamental historical connections.the main stages of its development and the fundamental historical connections.the main stages of its development and the fundamental historical connections.

By means of the historical method the concrete trajectory of the theory is analyzed, its conditioning to the different periods of history. The logical methods are based on the historical study, showing the internal logic of development, of its theory and finding the deepest knowledge of it, of its essence. The logical structure of the object implies its modeling.

• Synthetic method: It is a process by which apparently isolated events are related and a theory is formulated that unifies the various elements. It consists of the rational meeting of several elements dispersed in a new totality, this is presented more in the statement of the hypothesis. The researcher synthesizes the surpasses in the imagination to establish a tentative explanation that will be tested. Analytical method: The elements of a phenomenon are distinguished and each one of them is reviewed separately. Physics, chemistry, and biology use this method; From the experimentation and analysis of a large number of cases, universal laws are established. It consists of the extraction of the parts of a whole, in order to study and examine them separately, to see,for example the relationships between them.

These operations do not exist independent of each other; the analysis of an object is carried out from the relationship that exists between the elements that make up said object as a whole; and in turn, the synthesis occurs on the basis of the previous results of the analysis.

• Method of abstraction: It is a very important process for the understanding of the object, through it the property or relationship of things and phenomena is highlighted. It does not limit itself to highlighting and isolating some property and relation of the object accessible to the senses, but it tries to discover the essential hidden nexus and inaccessible to empirical knowledge.Method of concretion: By integrating abstractions into thought, man can rise from the abstract to the concrete; in this process, thought reproduces the object in its entirety on a theoretical plane.

The concrete is the synthesis of many concepts and therefore of the parts. Abstract definitions lead to the reproduction of concrete through thought. What is concrete in thought is the deepest and most essential knowledge.

• Genetic method: It implies the determination of a certain elemental field of action that becomes the object's cell, in this cell all the components of the object are present as well as its most transcendent laws.Model method: It is precisely the method by which it is they create abstractions with a view to explaining reality. The model as a substitute for the research object. In the model the unity of the objective and the subjective is revealed. Modeling is the method that operates in a practical or theoretical way with an object, not directly, but using a certain intermediate, auxiliary, natural or artificial system. Systemic method: It is aimed at modeling the object by determining its components, thus like the relationships between them. These relationships determine on the one hand the structure of the object and on the other its dynamics.Dialectical method: The essential characteristic of the dialectical method is that it considers historical and social phenomena in continuous movement. It gave rise to historical materialism, which explains the laws that govern economic and social structures, their corresponding superstructures and the historical development of humanity.

Applied to research, it states that all phenomena are governed by the laws of dialectics, that is, reality is not something immutable, but is subject to contradictions and perpetual evolution and development. Therefore it proposes that all phenomena be studied in their relationships with others and in their state of continuous change, since nothing exists as an isolated object.

This method describes the history of what surrounds us, of society and of thought, through a conception of struggle of opposites and not purely contemplative, rather of transformation. These conceptions, due to their dynamic character, expose not only quantitative changes, but also radical or qualitative ones.

Although there are no infallible rules to apply the scientific method, Mario Bunge considers the following as some of the most representative:

• Precise and specific formulation of the problem Propose well-defined and well-founded hypotheses Subject the hypothesis to rigorous testing Failure to declare a satisfactorily confirmed hypothesis true Analyze whether the answer can be stated in another way.

2.4. The Measurement method

Observation fixes the presence of a certain property of the observed object or a relationship between its components, properties, or other qualities. For the expression of its results, qualitative and comparative concepts are not enough, but rather the attribution of numerical values ​​to said properties and relationships is necessary to evaluate and represent them properly.

When the study of a region of completely unknown processes or phenomena begins, it begins with the elaboration of qualitative concepts, which allows a classification of the objects of the studied region. Subsequently, certain relationships are established between the sets of similar objects with the help of comparative concepts, which allows them to be classified into sets that have similar qualities.

The use of comparative concepts can serve as a basis for the introduction of quantitative concepts, that is, concepts that designate the measured quality. The transition from qualitative to comparative concepts and from these to quantitative ones is carried out only through theoretical propositions.

Measurement is the method that is developed with the objective of obtaining numerical information about a property or quality of the object, process or phenomenon, where measurable and known quantities are compared.

The numerical value of a property will be given by the difference in values ​​between the compared quantities. Measurement will be called the process of comparing a property with a homogeneous quantity taken as a unit of comparison.

It can be said that measurement is the attribution of numerical values ​​to the properties of objects. Although measurement constitutes one of the forms of empirical knowledge, measurement procedures are determined by theoretical considerations. In the measurement it is necessary to take into account the object and property to be measured, the unit and the measuring instrument, the subject that performs the measurement and the results that are intended to be achieved.

The use of quantitative concepts and the introduction into it of exact quantitative methods of research indicate the level of development of science. In the social sciences it is increasingly necessary to predict with greater accuracy the course of social processes as well as to achieve the uniform expression of the results in the investigation, which can be achieved, to some extent, by the numerical expression of the same.

In the social, natural and technical sciences, taking measurements is not enough; Instead, it is necessary to apply different procedures to reveal trends, regularities, and relationships in the process or phenomenon under study, one of these procedures is statistical. In the social sciences, the most important statistical procedures are descriptive and inferential.

Descriptive statistics procedures make it possible to organize and classify the quantitative indicators obtained in the measurement, revealing through them the properties, relationships and trends of the process, which on many occasions are not immediately apparent to the naked eye.

The most frequent ways of organizing the information in this case is in frequency distribution tables, graphs and measures of central tendency such as: the median, the mean, the mode and others.

Inferential statistics procedures are used in the interpretation and quantitative assessment of the magnitudes of the process or phenomenon under study, where the regularities and quantitative relationships between properties are determined on the basis of the calculation of the probability of occurrence.

Among the most applied techniques of inferential statistics we have the chi-square test, factor analysis, correlation, linear regression and others. In the assessment of certain qualities of the process or phenomenon under study, it is common to present them in the form of scales, that is, to convert a series of qualitative facts into quantitative ones.

The scales procedure can be used in different ways: by numbering the possible answers to a question or assigning a number of different magnitudes to the same property.

Example:

A person's quality of being organized can be assigned various values: the value of 5 is for the person very organized, 4 organized, 3 not very organized, 2 disorganized, 1 very disorganized. With this type of evaluation you can get an opinion about the person, group of people and even for your self-evaluation.

There are other types of scales according to the qualities of the process or phenomenon to be studied; but as in the previous cases, they only allow the external evaluation of the phenomenon, without reaching the essence of it, its cause.

2.5. The Delphi method

The Delphi method consists of the systematic use of the intuitive judgment of a group of experts to obtain a consensus of informed opinions (Valdés, 1999), (Moráguez, 2001). It is essential that these opinions are not permeated or influenced by the criteria of some experts.

This method is more effective if anonymity, controlled feedback, and group statistical response are guaranteed.

The method can be applied:

• As a forecast of the behavior of known variables; that is, to evaluate the behavior of a known variable and thus possible forms of behavior can be inferred. In the perspective determination of the composition of a system, eg: in the event that the elements of the system to be studied are not known, or they have never been applied to the object of study and the sample is oriented to the determination of the possible structure of the system or model to be applied.

This last case constitutes the example we illustrate.

This author considers, like Zayas (1998), Campistrous (1998), Valdés (1999), Moráguez (2001), that the advantages of the method are given in that:

• It allows the formation of a criterion with a higher degree of objectivity. The consensus reached on the basis of the criteria is very reliable. The task of decisions, based on the criteria of experts, obtained by the latter has a high probability of being efficient. value decision alternatives. Avoid conflicts between experts by being anonymous, (which is an essential requirement to guarantee the success of the method) and creates a favorable climate for creativity. The expert feels fully involved in solving the problem and facilitates its implantation. Of this the principle of voluntariness of the expert in participating in the investigation is important. It guarantees freedom of opinion (for being anonymous and confidential). No expert should know that their peer is being asked for opinions.

Its most significant disadvantages are given that:

• Its application is very laborious and time consuming, since it requires a minimum of two turns to obtain the necessary consensus.It is expensive compared to others, since it requires the use of: expert time, sheets, printers, telephone, mail… It requires good communications to save time on searching and receiving responses. It must be carried out by a group of analyzes: experts as such. Subjective criteria are issued, so the process may be loaded with subjectivity, subject to external influences.

Hence the need to apply several rounds, seek varied analysis techniques to obtain a consensus and statistical tests to determine its degree of reliability and relevance.

How are experts selected and what instruments are applied?

For the practical application of the method it is necessary to consider two fundamental aspects methodologically: selection of the group of experts to survey and the preparation of the questionnaire or questionnaires. But first of all: Who can be considered experts?

An individual is defined as an expert, a group of people or organizations capable of offering conclusive evaluations of a problem in question and making recommendations regarding its fundamental moments with maximum competence (Valdés, 1999) (Moráguez, 2001).

From this definition it is inferred, as a basic requirement for the selection of an expert, that he have experience in the subject to consult, given his years of work (praxis), and that they can be complemented with: theoretical knowledge acquired through the different forms of improvement, and academic or scientific degree achieved in relation to the subject, among others.

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The following is a complete video course on research methodology, which emphasizes in the case of business management, (13 videos, 2 hours and 48 minutes), taught by Doctors Antonio Aragón and Gregorio Sánchez from the University of Murcia, in which you will learn about: the scientific method and the types of research, the research problem and the construction of hypotheses, the sources of information for the research, the questionnaire and its design, construction of scales, reliability and validity, preparation of articles of research and evaluation and publication of research. It will surely be of use to you.

Technique

It is the set of instruments and means through which the method is carried out and it is only applied to a science. The difference between method and technique is that the method is the set of steps and stages that an investigation must complete and this is applied to various sciences while the technique is the set of instruments in which the method is carried out.

Research techniques

Technique is indispensable in the process of scientific research since it integrates the structure through which research is organized. The technique has the following objectives:

• Order the stages of the investigation Provide tools to manage the information Keep a control of the data Guide the obtaining of knowledge.

Regarding research techniques, two general forms will be studied: documentary technique and field technique.

• The documentary technique allows the collection of information to state the theories that support the study of phenomena and processes. It includes the use of instruments defined according to the documentary source to which they refer.The field technique allows observation in direct contact with the object of study, and the collection of testimonies that allow comparing theory with practice in the search for truth objective.

1. The interview

The interview is a technique for gathering information through a professional conversation, with which in addition to acquiring information about what is being investigated, it is important from an educational point of view; The results to be achieved in the mission depend to a great extent on the level of communication between the researcher and the participants in it.

Depending on the purpose of the interview, it may or may not be structured by means of a previously prepared questionnaire. When the interview is applied in the previous stages of the investigation where you want to know the object of investigation from an external point of view, without even requiring the deepening of the essence of the phenomenon, the questions to be asked by the interviewer are left at your discretion and experience.

If the interview pursues the objective of acquiring information about the study variables, the interviewer must be clear about the working hypothesis, the variables and relationships that are to be demonstrated; in such a way that an appropriate questionnaire can be elaborated with questions that have a specific purpose and that are essential to clarify the research task, as well as the support questions that help to develop the interview.

When preparing the interview and defining the properties or characteristics to be assessed (dependent or independent variables); It is necessary to establish qualifications, qualitative or quantitative gradations of these properties that allow the dependence between the studied magnitudes to be accurately measured, as well as to calculate the correlation between them by applying methods of mathematical statistics.

The success that is achieved in the interview depends to a great extent on the level of communication that the researcher reaches with the interviewee; the researcher's preparation for the questions to be asked; their structuring; the psychological conditions of the person under investigation; the fidelity at the time of transcribing the responses and the level of confidence that the interviewee has about the non-leakage of the information he is providing; as well as the non-influence of the researcher on the answers offered by the interviewee.

The interview is a technique that can be applied to all types of people, even when they have some type of limitation, such as illiterates, physical and organic limitations, children who have some difficulty that makes it impossible to give a written answer.

In that interview, which is structured from a questionnaire, the information obtained is easy to process, it does not require a very skilled interviewer and there is uniformity in the type of information obtained; However, this alternative does not make it possible to delve into the aspects that arise in the interview.

The unstructured interview is very useful in descriptive studies, and in the research design phase; it is adaptable and capable of being applied to all kinds of subjects and situations; It allows you to delve into the subject and requires time and experienced personnel to obtain information and knowledge about it. In this, the information processing is difficult.

2. The survey

The survey is a technique for acquiring information of sociological interest, through a previously prepared questionnaire, through which the opinion or assessment of the selected subject in a sample on a given subject can be known.

In the survey, unlike the interview, the respondent reads the questionnaire beforehand and answers it in writing, without the direct intervention of any person who collaborates in the research.

The survey, once the questionnaire has been prepared, does not require qualified personnel when it comes to reaching the respondent. Unlike the interview, the survey has a logical, rigid structure that remains unchanged throughout the entire investigative process. The answers are chosen in a special way and the possible variants of standard answers are determined in the same way, which facilitates the evaluation of the results by statistical methods.

3. The Transfer

The signing is an auxiliary technique of all the other techniques used in scientific research; It consists of recording the data that is obtained in the instruments called files, which, duly prepared and ordered, contain most of the information that is collected in an investigation, therefore it constitutes a valuable aid in this task, by saving a lot of time, space and money.

4. The questionnaire

The questionnaire is a basic instrument of observation in the survey and in the interview. The questionnaire asks a series of questions that allow one or more variables to be measured. It makes it possible to observe the facts through the assessment that the respondent or interviewee makes of them, limiting the investigation to their subjective assessments.

Despite the fact that the questionnaire is limited to simple observation, by the interviewer or the respondent, it can be massively applied to national and even international communities, being able to obtain information on a wide range of aspects or defined problems.

The structure and character of the questionnaire is defined by the content and form of the questions that are asked of the respondents. The question in the questionnaire for its content can be divided into two large groups: direct or indirect question.

The direct question: the content of the question coincides with the object of interest of the researcher. The formulation of the indirect question constitutes one of the most difficult problems in the construction of the surveys.

Sample direct question:

Do you like the teaching profession?

Indirect question example:

Would you like your child to choose the profession of teacher?

When constructing the questionnaire, together with the content of the questions, its form must be defined, using the open and closed questionnaire in sociology.

The open question in a survey is one that does not limit the way of answering it, nor are the expected response variants defined. This type of question does not allow the property to be accurately measured, it is only possible to obtain an opinion.

The closed question has its answer delimited in advance for a certain number of variants provided by the survey maker.

The most widespread form of question is one whose answer is structured by schemes of comparisons of pairs of values, of sequential categories of values ​​and others.

The pairwise comparison consists in that all the answer variants are made up of two possibilities of which the respondent selects one. This scheme is used when the number of questions is not large and when great precision and fidelity in the answer is required.

Another technique widely applied in the survey is selection, where the respondent chooses from a list of possible answers those that he prefers. Within this technique there are variants: limited selection, where you can choose a certain number of answers, and single selection where you can choose only one possible answer.

The statistical elaboration in this case is simple, where it is reduced to the count of the selection frequency of each response on which the gradation of the attitude shown by the respondents towards the responses is performed.

In the questionnaires, questions that measure attitudes of the individual towards a certain fact can be applied. When measuring attitude, it is necessary to take into account its direction as well as its intensity, for which various types of scales are applied.

In a more general way, the question is formulated in a positive way and 5 alternatives of possible answers are given, designating a scale of values ​​from 1 to 5, giving the most favorable answer to the statement that has the maximum score.

Example: "The new study plan allows students to further develop their creative abilities."

Strongly agree …………………………………… (5)

Agree ………………………………………. (4)

Neither agree nor disagree ………………. (3)

Disagree ……………………………………. (2)

Strongly disagree ………………………………. (one)

If, on the contrary, the statements are negative in the formulation of the question, the evaluation of the question must be the opposite of the previous case.

Example: "The new administrative structure of teaching hospitals has allowed us to incorporate medical students into the healthcare activity."

Totally agree ………………………………… (1)

Agree ……………………………………………… (2)

Neither agree nor disagree …… ………………… (3)

Disagree ………………………………………….. (4)

Totally disagree ……………………………. (5)

Other types of instruments can be applied in the measurement of activities and can be studied in different bibliographies that deal with aspects of experimental work techniques.

Some basic rules for the construction of the questionnaire

1. Like any other theory of empirical methods, it is necessary to start from the hypothesis formulated and specifically from the indicators of the variables defined in it, which will be translated into specific questions for the questionnaire.

2. Establish the respondent's need for cooperation; This will depend on whether the individuals participate or not, or whether or not they contribute favorably to the research. Said demand can be made in various ways; It can be done by the interviewer at the time of presenting the survey, it can accompany the questionnaire in writing, it can be requested by phone, by prior letter, etc.

The request for cooperation must contain:

• The value of the information that is requested. That there is no hidden or unconfessed motive in the purpose pursued. Confidential use of the information provided in the survey. How easy and fast the questionnaire can be answered.

3. Questions must be clear.

• Each term must be understood. Two questions should not be asked in one. The question should be asked in a positive way. The construction of the response must not induce ambiguous expressions.

4. The questions should not be biased, that is, they should not be made in such a way that they lead the individual to answer in a certain way or that they predispose him in contradiction to his feeling before the question to be answered.

5. Questions should not require a lot of memory effort.

6. When addressing controversial or embarrassing aspects, the questions must be constructed in such a way that they do not constitute a conflict for the subject.

7. The order of the questions must be arranged according to the psychological characteristics of the same. In the first place, socio-demographic data such as sex, age, occupation should be asked; then simple general questions that lead you to more complex questions, from the impersonal to the personal.

8. The monotony effect must be counteracted in the response variant. This occurs mainly in closed questionnaires and when the respondent does not feel fully motivated to answer.

9. A final question must be induced that reflects the impression of the person being interviewed regarding the questionnaire.

In conclusion, we can say that in the execution of an investigation, multiple methods and procedures are used trying to be more and more profound and essential in the characterization of the object.

5. The Test

It is a technique derived from the interview and the purpose of the survey is to obtain information on defined personality traits, behavior or certain individual or collective behaviors and characteristics of the person (intelligence, interest, attitudes, skills, performance, memory, manipulation, etc.). Through questions, activities, manipulations, etc., which are observed and evaluated by the researcher.

Millions of theses have been created and developed that fit the researcher's needs or objectives. They are widely used in Psychology (especially Experimental Psychology) in Social Sciences, in education; Currently they are popular for their application in new branches of the Social Sciences, such as "Human Relations" and the Psychology of daily consumption that uses magazines and newspapers to apply them. The Tests constitute an own resource of the scientific evaluation.

Characteristics of a good test

There is no perfect Test; it hasn't been created yet and probably never will be.

1. It must be valid, that is, to investigate what it intends and not something else. "If it is a test designed to investigate the IQ of a group of people". It must be reliable, that is, offer consistency in its results; These must be the same as long as they are applied under identical conditions by whoever does it. The reliability index is what gives the researcher more or less confidence about the use of a certain test. There are universally accepted tables on these indices and it makes us aware that no test reaches a 100% reliability index. It must be objective, avoiding any risk of subjective interpretation by the researcher. Objectivity is a prerequisite for reliability. It must be simple and clear, written in language easily understood by researchers.It must be economical, both in time and in money and effort. It must be interesting, to motivate the interest of researchers.

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Here is a video course on research techniques (10 videos, 1 hour and 37 minutes), from the International University of La Rioja, in which you can learn more about: quantitative and qualitative research, the test, the experiment, the survey, the interview, scale techniques, geomarketing, participant observation and focus group, among others. Enjoy your learning!

Conclusions

Any kind of research that you want to undertake requires the use of a research methodology, which is mainly dedicated to the study of methods and techniques to carry out research and determines how the problem posed within it will develop. Selecting among the various alternatives, fundamentally one, is one of the most important and decisive steps in the development of a project, since the correct path will lead to obtaining valid results from the research that respond to the initially proposed objectives.

The scientific method does not include only laws, models and hypotheses, but also a whole system of categories and concepts. The concepts and categories must correspond to the relationships and properties of the phenomena.

By method we understand the set of successive steps that lead to a goal. It is an order that must be imposed on the different procedures and which must give us results; results that of course we expect. The technique consists only of the instruments made available for research, in addition to the application of these specifically in the methodological plane and their special way of executing it.

The technique plays a very important role in the process of scientific research, to such an extent that it can be defined as the structure of the process of scientific research. Its essential features are that: it proposes a series of rules to order the stages of scientific research. It provides instruments and means for the collection, concentration and conservation of data. But these two applied concepts are closely related to each other.

But why do we say that these concepts are related. The reason is very simple they are dependent on each other and the existence of one is the appearance of the other. In other words, they go hand in hand.

One of the main functions of the method is to choose the most appropriate techniques, the techniques that have been mentioned throughout this topic and that suit the interests of the research, all this in order to achieve the proposed objectives. Since the method will create bases, the foundations for research and as mentioned this is a series of steps, the technique being part of it. The techniques will help the method (as a phase of it) to successfully carry out those bases and proposed fundamentals.

Therefore, we deduce that these concepts should always be closely linked to each other for the execution and achievement of the proposed goals. Any kind of research that you want to undertake requires methodological approaches or a research methodology which is mainly dedicated to the study of methods and techniques for conducting research, a construct that is characterized by relating the concepts with which the theory is developed. with which the reality of the problem will be explained.

Selecting among these various alternatives, fundamentally one, which is considered the most appropriate, is precisely one of the most important and decisive steps in the development of a project. The way of working, the acquisition of information, the analyzes carried out and therefore the type of results obtained will depend on this decision; the methodological design guides the entire investigative process and based on it the objective of all investigation is achieved.

Bibliography

• Ander Egg, E. (1997). Social research techniques. Mexico: El Ateneo. Balcells I Jungyent, J. (1994). Social research: introduction to methods and techniques. Barcelona: Higher School of Public Relations, PPU Bunge, M. (1989). Scientific research. Barcelona: Ariel.González Río, MJ (1997). Social research methodology. Data collection techniques: Aguaclara, Hernández Sampieri, Roberto, Fernández Collado, Carlos and Baptista Lucio, Pilar. (1998): Research Methodology. Mexico: Mc Graw Hill. Ruiz Olabuénaga, JI (1996). Qualitative research methodology. Bilbao: Deusto.