Marketing is an English term that has had different versions in its translation. In Latin America, the terms Marketing and Marketing are used, while in Spain the words Marketing and Marketing are used to a greater extent.
The very development of companies in the last decade has shown that to succeed in increasingly competitive and slow-growing markets, it is not enough just to do a good job. Excellence is what prevails and the key to success lies in companies finding their right target audience and therefore satisfying them better than the competition.
Marketing is the social and managerial process through which individuals and organizations acquire what they need and want, creating, offering and exchanging products with value for others. In general, Marketing is the synergistic process of lucrative activities tending to generate an exchange but it is ambiguous because it is not only present in for-profit entities, non-profit entities also do Marketing. Whenever there is an exchange of ideas, goods or services, we can say that there is Marketing activity.
1.1) Evolution of Marketing
Marketing has evolved in three very different eras and this same classification can be applied to companies in their different states:
Time of production: The company is oriented towards production itself. Generally speaking, the demand is greater than the supply.
It consists of four phases, this begins with the arrival of the first settlers and ends at the beginning of the 20th century, especially until the beginning of the great depression in the 1930s.
In the first phase (Subsistence) you could consume what you produced for yourself, the main concern was to produce enough to survive.
As small populations form, an exchange begins beyond the family. This second phase is known as the work to order phase, production and consumption became separate activities. Customers told producers what they wanted and they offered their products tailored to the customer. Products were sold before they were produced.
Then there is a third phase: production for the market. In this the products began to be made before the customer's orders.
In the second half of the 19th century, the effects of the Industrial Revolution began to be felt and the mass production phase began for the market, whose basic idea is that unit production costs will decrease as the volume of outputs increases.. Producers began turning to intermediaries to find clients. This phase lasted until the beginning of the 20th century.
Sales Season: The Depression made it clear that the fundamental problem in the economy was no longer making enough products, but rather selling them. At this stage, the supply supply was greater than the demand. It was the time of "sale at all costs" and this led to the rebellion of consumers and the emergence of CONSUMERISM, a movement that is created to strengthen the power of consumers relative to the power of producers and sellers. Laws and regulations were enacted to protect consumers and against businesses using misleading advertisements and deceptive or false sales practices.
When the Second World War broke out, consumer products were scarce because the production lines were converted to military production.
After the war, consumers were eager to spend money on consumer products that began to appear, so the seller's market continued for a while longer.
Marketing Stage: Towards the middle of the 20th century, producers began to recognize the advantage of a close relationship with the customer and it became clear that the market would have to be investigated to learn about the wishes of potential customers.
At this stage, various activities come into the sphere of action of the Marketing Director. For example: inventory control, warehouse services and some aspects of product planning.
Stage of social responsibility and orientation to the human being: The social and economic conditions of the 70s and 80s have led to a fourth stage. This stage presupposes that you must act in a socially responsible way if you want to be successful and even survive.
External pressures (consumer discontent, concern for environmental problems and political-legal forces) influence current Marketing programs trying to offer a better quality of life and not just a higher standard of living, conservation and distribution of scarce resources and concern for people.
Hence, the human concept, the concept of smart consumption and the concept of ecological imperative are introduced today. Here are the bases of the concept of Social Marketing.
"Social Marketing": This argues that the organization's task is to determine the needs, desires and interests of the target markets and provide the desired satisfactions more effectively and efficiently than competitors and to do so in a way that maintains or improves the welfare of society and consumers. "
The concept of Social Marketing requires considering not only the wishes of its clients but also the wishes of other people whose well-being is affected by their operations, that is, the concept must be made more compatible with that of social responsibility in a world like ours that is characterized by environmental deterioration, scarcity of resources, inflation, etc.
1.1.1) The marketing research system
The marketing research system becomes vitally important for the proper use of the opportunities that arise, as it is in our case. The development of a marketing research may require a market report, a product preference test, an estimate of the demand for a region, a study of the efficiency of a specific advertisement, among other activities.
According to P. Kotler (1997), marketing research consists of the design, collection, analysis of data and relevant information to solve a specific marketing problem, such as problems that arise in any of the phases or areas of marketing of a product, therefore the expression marketing research is different from that of market research, since the same author states that the latter refers only to studies of clients / consumers and their behaviors.
Effective marketing research involves five steps:
1. Definition of the problem and the objectives of the investigation.
2. Develop the research plan.
3. Collect the information.
4. Analyze the information.
5. Present the results
It is necessary to point out that the good result of the next depends on the good performance of each one.
For this author, first of all, when carrying out the process, the problem must be carefully defined and the research objectives agreed upon, because if it is developed in a counterproductive way, very high costs can be incurred. A well-defined problem is a half-solved problem.
Investigations should not be so specific in defining the problems and objectives, for this several types of investigation are distinguished, highlighting the exploratory investigation through which a compilation of information is made, which gathers data that shows the true origin of the problem, sometimes suggesting hypotheses and ideas about it. Research design is characterized by the flexibility to make sensitive to the unexpected and to discover other points of view not previously recognized. Broad and versatile approaches are used. These include secondary sources of information, observation, interviews with experts, group interviews with specialists, and cases.
At the time of developing the research plan, the development of the most efficient design is assumed to collect the information needed about the marketing environment. The decisions that must be taken into account to prepare such a plan are:
- Data sources (Secondary and Primary) Research Methods (Observation, Group Meetings, Interviews and Experiments) Research Instrument (Questionnaire and Mechanical Instruments) Sampling Plan (Sampling Unit, Sample Size and Sampling Procedure Contact methods (Telephone, Mail and Personal).
Next, the necessary information must be collected, for this a market research process will be used, which will involve anticipating all the steps that are carried out and its independence will be recognized.
Market research steps:
1. Establish the need for information.
2. Specify research objectives and information needs.
3. Determine the sources of information.
4. Develop formats for gathering information.
5. Design the sample.
6. Collect the data.
7. Process the data.
8. Analyze the data.
9. Present the results of the investigation.
When carrying out the step of collecting the information is when the previously designed formats are applied. In this case, the interview and the questionnaire will be used.
One of the main techniques used to gather information is the interview. This aims to collect the information verbally, through questions that the researcher assumes and that will be answered by the interviewee. This method can be carried out by telephone, mail, or face-to-face interviewer-interviewee (personal).
The interview is a form of conversation, not questioning, as this allows you to know data that is not available in any other way.
These are classified as: Structured, Unstructured and semi-structured; according to the form of presentation of the questions.
Interviews must be planned, so that the analysis is prepared before conducting the same and must define the following terms:
Who: People who can provide the information:
When: Logical sequence based on the type of information to be collected (maintain hierarchical level).
What: What are we going to ask to obtain the information, bearing in mind who is being asked.
Where: Place where the conversation takes place.
When starting it, you must be punctual, without falling into extremes and explain the purpose of your visit concretely and concisely. The skill of the interviewer is vital to the success of finding facts through the interview. Good interviews depend on the researcher's knowledge, both of the preparation of the objective and of the questions to ask a specific person.
At the end of the interview, you should be grateful for the attention and help provided.
The questionnaire is a more or less broad instrument of questions whose purpose is to find out certain aspects of a problem according to the information provided by the group of people chosen as the recipient of the survey.
When preparing the questionnaire, it must never be forgotten that it must constitute a harmonious and internally interlaced set composed of questions that respond to a specific purpose and each of which is related to the others.
Do not use terms that have different meanings in different geographical regions, as well as misleading or ambiguous words, which would lead to inaccurate results. Ex: words like usually, occasionally, regularly can have different meanings to people.
It is a good rule to bear in mind that general questions must precede more concrete or specific ones.
The first questions that open the questionnaire are of basic importance because it depends on whether or not the interviewee's interest is awakened. These first questions, in addition to being interesting, must be very easy to answer, without implying any commitment for the questioned person.
The embarrassing, personal, intimate questions, those that refer to the income of the interviewees and their studies and knowledge, should be included in the final part of the questionnaire, when the climate of tension has been overcome.
In this sense, it is advisable, while the questionnaire is being drawn up, to draw up the different tables in which the results of each question will be statistically collected.
For the new entrepreneur, market research is a fundamental element of the project of his new business because they will provide him with key information to plan the technical and economic aspects of the company. This will allow making the correct decisions for the launch of the activity, with a special emphasis on the provision of meaningful information for the planning and control functions.
The information obtained will be analyzed below, it must be consistent with the requirements of the identified information needs. It is generally carried out using appropriate software packages for data analysis, it must be qualitatively demonstrated that the sample obtained is representative of the analyzed population. The conclusions drawn must provide a response and solution to the objectives and problems raised.
Finally, the previously analyzed results will be presented, the audience should not be overwhelmed with a large amount of data and statistical techniques, but the most relevant findings in relation to appropriate marketing decisions should be presented. They communicate through a written report and an oral presentation. As mentioned, the results of the research are directed towards the information needs of the decision situation.
1.2) General characteristics of tourist activity
The origin of the words tourism and tourist come from the Latin word tour tournus, which means circular movement (to turn, circuit), thus the round trip using different paths is called. With the word tourism, the trip back to the starting point was designated and it was applied to the pleasure of temporarily leaving the place of residence, qualifying the person who traveled for their pleasure as a tourist, and as tourism to the promotion of such migrations. Later these expressions and their derivatives were adapted to Spanish by deleting the o.
With the aim of establishing a common conceptualization at an international level about the terms tourism and tourist, the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) proposed to draw up a new conceptual framework and thus adopt a standard language in all countries and establish, for Therefore, reliable international statistics.
There are several definitions of tourism that precede the one enunciated by the aforementioned organization and that contain common elements, the one that was definitively adopted was nurtured by them and, in turn, formalized the aspects of tourism activity: «tourism includes made by people during their trips and stays in places other than their usual environment, for a consecutive period of less than one year for leisure, business and other reasons ”. This definition covers the entire global travel market within the framework of population mobility, it is broad and specific to the most important characteristics of tourism:
- Introduction of the possible motivating elements of the trip, "leisure, business, others." Time limit of the period for one year, a really long period, especially when compared with the normal time of extension of travel visas for tourism by governments - three months - or with the periodization provided by some laws for the delimitation of what is considered habitual residence - six months - (OMT, 1998). Delimitation of the activity carried out before and during the period of stay.
Location of the tourist activity as the activity carried out "outside its usual environment"
Therefore, the concept of tourism to be retained should follow the UNWTO proposal (1995: 21) and from its analysis it can be concluded that tourism is, on the one hand, the group of tourists (increasingly numerous); on the other, they are the phenomena and relationships that occur as a result of their travels. In other words, it is a very broad concept that encompasses the entire receiving set of hotels, travel agencies, transport, shows, restaurants, guide-interpreters, etc.
Also private or public organizations, which arise to promote infrastructure and the expansion of the destination; the marketing strategies and programs to be planned, executed and disseminated; tourist training schools, etc.; the negative or positive effects that occur in the recipient destinations (economic, social, religious, etc.); and the effect that occurs in a receiving destination when the tourist influx is cut off, that is, there may be negative tourist effects without tourists (Agüí, 1994).
Then tourism becomes the set of relationships, phenomena and economic activities that derive from the travel and stay in a country of people for peaceful purposes, for which the selected place constitutes the place of stay, but not the place of residence. permanent nor the main place of work. If a study is to be carried out in this field, given its conceptual breadth, it is necessary to assess and analyze tourism as a "system" that allows us to understand the characteristics and operation of the sector in the most realistic way possible (Go and Govers, 2000).
1.2.1) The tourism sector as a system
As it is based on the concept of tourism of such a broad nature, it is necessary to analyze it from the system of relationships that characterize its operation. In this way, reference is made to the components and general relationships that characterize the operation of the «tourist system», trying to make an approach to the definition of demand and supply in said sector (see figure 1)
In addition to all the key concepts that base and determine the particularities of tourism marketing, and consequently, of image and positioning studies in the sector (Ritchie and Crouch, 2000).
In figure 1 (See Annex), the integral parts of the «tourist system» have been represented and their essential relationships have also been pointed out (Boulón, 1990), where the meeting of the supply with the tourist demand constitutes the starting point of the operation of the system through a process of sale of the so-called "tourist product", which together with the infrastructure form the "production structure" of the sector. Surrounded by all these elements, the tourist superstructure has been represented, whose function is to control the efficiency of the system, monitoring the operation and interrelation between the parties.
As shown in the figure, the system does not have a high level of complexity, but that does not mean it lacks particularities in its operation, where each element implies being analyzed independently. Initially, in the following section, we will deal with the demand in the tourism sector; later we will expand the aspects related to the offer.
1.2.2) Demand in the tourism sector
The definition of tourism demand will vary according to the interests that move the researcher (Faulkner, 1997). Mathieson and Wall (1982: 16) offer a definition with geographical connotations: “the total number of people who travel or wish to travel, to enjoy tourist facilities and services in places other than the place of work and habitual residence”. This definition is quite comprehensive, as it includes both those who travel and those who, for some reason, do not.
Cooper et al. (1993: 15) taking this aspect into account, they classify tourism demand into three large groups:
- The actual or current demand: it is the current number of people who participate in the tourist activity, that is, who actually travel. This group is the most easily measured and the one that is reflected in world statistics. Ineffective demand: it is the sector of the population that does not travel for some reason. Within this group, the following can be distinguished: potential demand (refers to those who will possibly travel in the future, when they experience a change in their personal circumstances) and deferred demand (that which has not been able to travel due to some problem in the environment or in supply of the destination) The third group is configured by non-demand, characterized by a group of people who are averse to travel (those who simply do not want to travel).
There is an eminently economic concept, which the UNWTO (1998: 61) refers to in its definitions frames the concept of tourism expenditure: “it is the expenditure made by a visitor due to a trip and during their stay in the destination”.
In short, tourists, travelers, and visitors form the tourist demand (OMT, 1998) and, after this term, there is a heterogeneous group of people.
Travelers related to tourism are called visitors. Therefore, the term “visitor” is the basic concept for the whole tourism statistical system. For the purposes of tourism statistics and in accordance with the elementary forms of tourism, visitors can be classified into:
1. International Visitors: is any person who travels, for a period not exceeding twelve months, to a country other than the one in which they have their habitual residence, and whose main reason for the visit is not to carry out an activity that is pay in a visited country ”. These include tourists (overnight visitors) and day visitors (hikers).
2. Internal Visitors: the expression “internal visitor” designates “any person who resides in a country and who travels, for a duration not exceeding twelve months, to a place within the country, but different from their usual environment, and whose main reason for the visit is not to carry out a remunerative activity in the place visited ”. These include tourists (overnight visitors) and day visitors (Excursionistas) (UNWTO (1995).
Firstly, it must be accepted that the tourist demand by its nature (the desire or desire to enjoy the knowledge of new spaces, regions, customs and different varieties of the usual or everyday), is totally different from any other, not only in its forms but in its own intrinsic elements (Kotler et al., 1993). According to Klenosky and Gitelson, 1998, the demand for a trip is not the same as the demand for a food product, footwear or clothing; the first satisfies an inclination of a spiritual or psychological nature, the other, in principle, satisfies physical or material needs).
When conducting market research and studying the demand, it is necessary to take into account the wide variety of forms that it takes, since the differentiations in the marketing plans will depend on these.
1.2.3) An approach to the definition of the "offer" in the tourism sector.
The generic offer includes all those goods and services that are available so that someone can buy and / or consume them. The study of all the supply that converges in the tourist market is essential for a correct analysis of the “supply-demand” systems (Burak, 1995).
In a "tourist system" the offer can be configured as the set of (Pearce, 2000):
- The resources and attractions available immediately for immersive enjoyment of the system The infrastructure, equipment, facilities and services specifically made for possible offers of the system, affordable and for direct use The specific, structured, and really commercialized products, by shares of Marketing in the markets. Other variables, such as security or reasoned confidence, that the client has in terms of his belief that he will really be able to enjoy the corresponding "tourist product".
Taking into account the aforementioned, when a tourist buys a "product" he buys something that is based on the previous concepts.
Boulón (1990), when analyzing the «tourism system», proposes that the “tourist heritage” of a country must be determined from the integration of four components:
a) tourist attractions.
b) tourist plant (equipment and facilities).
c) infrastructure.
d) tourist superstructure.
Therefore, the concept of tourist heritage is defined as the relationship between the raw material (tourist attractions), the tourist plant (productive apparatus), the infrastructure (endowment of support for the productive apparatus) and the superstructure (organizational subsystem and available human resources to operate the system).
These four components are very important when making the diagnosis of the tourism sector, because, according to Calver and Teare, 1995, the lack or deficiency of one part affects the rest. Even in the case that the technical team is entrusted with the task of diagnosing the situation of only one of the heritage elements (such as the tourist plant), it is impossible to do so without referring to the attractions that it must serve, the infrastructure that conditions it. and the support provided by the superstructure, without forgetting demand analysis (Buhalis, 2000).
There is a work done by (Boulón, 1990), where a set of elements are included within the stated components (see table 1). This has a degree of detail and a mode of presentation that are considered of special importance for the investigation that is carried out.
Table 1
Components of the "Tourist Heritage of a Country
| Classification of Tourist Attractions (Category) | Type |
| 1. Tourist Sites | 1.1 Mountains, 1.2 Plains, 1.3 Coasts, 1.4 Lakes, lagoons and estuaries, 1.5 Rivers and streams, 1.6 Water falls, 1.7 Caves and caverns, 1.8 Flora and fauna observation sites, 1.9 Hunting and fishing sites, 1.10 Scenic roads, 1.11 Hot springs and 1.12 National parks and flora and fauna reserves |
| 2. Museums and Cultural - Historical Manifestations | 2.1 Museums, 2.2, Works of Art and Technique, 2.3 Historical Places and 2.4 Ruins and archaeological sites. |
| 3. Folklore | 3.1 Religious manifestations and popular beliefs, 3.2 Fairs and markets, 3.3 Music and dances, 3.4 Crafts and popular arts, 3.5 Typical foods and drinks, 3.6 Ethnic groups and 3.7 Popular and spontaneous architecture. |
| 4. Contemporary Technical, Scientific or Artistic Accomplishments | 4.1 Mining operations, 4.2 Agricultural operations, 4.3 Industrial operations, 4.4 Works of art and technique and 4.5 Scientific and technical centers. |
| 5. Scheduled Events | 5.1 Artistic, 5.2 Sports, 5.3 Fairs and exhibitions, 5.4 Competitions, 5.5 Religious and secular festivals and 5.7 Others. |
| 2. a) Classification of the Elements of the Tourist Plant (technical equipment) | Type |
| 1.Accommodation | 1.1 Hotels, 1.2 Motels, 1.3 Hostels and inns, 1.4 Pensions, 1.5 Aparthotels, 1.6 Condos (units or complexes), 1.7 Houses (units or neighborhoods), 1.8 Cabins, 1.9 Hostels, 1.10 Trailers parks, 1.11 Campsites and 1.12 Beds in houses of family |
| 2. Food | 2.1 Restaurants, 2.2 Cafeterias, 2.3 Kiosks and 2.4 Typical dining rooms (palapas, taquerías, grills, etc.) |
| 3. Recreation | 3.1 Night clubs, 3.2 Discotheques, 3.3 Bars, 3.4 Casinos and other games of chance, 3.5 Cinemas and theaters, 3.6 Other public shows (bulls, rodeos), 3.7 Sports clubs and 3.8 Theme parks. |
| 4. Other services | 4.1 Travel Agencies, 4.2 Information, 4.3 Guides, 4.4 Commerce, 4.5 Currency exchanges, 4.6 Provision for congresses and conventions, 4.7 Tourist transport, 4.8 First aid, 4.9 Nurseries and 4.10 Parking. |
| 2. b) Classification of the Elements of the Tourist Plant (facilities) | Type |
| 1. Of water and beach | 1.1Marinas, 1.2 Jetties, 1.3 Docks, 1.4 Palapas or ramadas, 1.5 Tents or tents, 1.6 Parasols, 1.7 Chairs and 1.8 Underwater observation |
| 2. From Mountains | 2.1 Lookouts, 2.2 Trail Circuits, 1.3 Shelters, 1.4 Funiculars, 1.5 Cable Cars, 1.6 Ski Lift and 1.7 Poma litt. |
| 3. General | 3.1 Pools, 3.2 Changing rooms, 3.3 Children's juices, 3.4 Golf, 3.5 Tennis, 3.6 Other sports and 3.7 Catwalks, bridges. |
| 3) Classification of Infrastructure | Type (subtype) |
| 1. Transportation | 1.1 Terrestrial (1.1.1 Road network - automotive services, tourist services, signaling, transport services, bus terminals - 1.1.2 Railway network - railway terminals - and 1.1.3 Street network); 1.2 Air (1.2.1 Air services and 1.2.2 Terminals) and 1.3 Aquatic (1.3.1 Maritime - transport service, terminals -, 1.3.2 River and lake - Transport services and terminals -) |
| 2. Communications | 2.1 Postal, 2.2 Telegraphic, 2.3 Telex and 2.4 Telephone |
| 3. Health | 3.1 Water network, 3.2 Drainage network (sewage, rainwater), 3.3 Garbage collection and 3.4 health (first aid and hospitalization) |
| 4. Energy | 4.1 Electricity network (public lighting and home services) and 4.2 Fuel (gasoline, gas). |
| 4) Superstructure | It includes all the specialized organizations, both public and private, in charge of optimizing and modifying, when necessary, the operation of each of the parts that make up the system as well as harmonizing their relationships to facilitate the production and sale of the multiple and disparate services that make up the tourist heritage. |
Source: Boulón (1990)
Within the aggregate offer of the tourist system (country, region, province, city, etc.) There are various components, which has led to the appearance in the literature of different conceptual approaches to analysis and assessment of the tourist offer. Then the tourist product constitutes the base of the offer in this sector, so it is necessary to address this issue.
1.3) The tourism product
When a tourist buys a "tourist product" he buys a product that is based on what we have called the "tourist offer" of a country (region) (Faulkner, 1997) and this offer is based on the "tourist heritage" (Table 1.3) of a country (region) (Boulón, 1990). But the product not only has characteristics or attributes according to its industrial manufacture, because when satisfying a human need the product has attributes of a psychological and sociological order. So when designing the product, an objective definition of it cannot be made but must be done with the tourist in mind, using their vision.
The concept of "tourism product" is fundamental for the management in all sectors and institutions that will be part of the "tourism system" (Smith, 1994), and according to Nybert, 1995, it has an important implication for the marketing of the companies in the sector in general, and national and regional tourism offices.
But in addition, it is of great relevance for the planning and development of the social aspects of the places, to which tourists arrive (Pearce, 2000) and for the “feasibility” of the studies that are carried out (Spotts, 1997).
If marketing is taken into account, according to Kotler (1992: 5), the product is defined as “everything that can be offered to satisfy a need or a desire”. Product decisions in any industry, not just tourism, is a central point in all marketing activity, around which the other components of the marketing-mix are organized (price, promotion, distribution).
In fact, the marketing strategy with respect to tourism products, in the medium and long term, focuses on the positioning of the product, its development and improvement, based on identifying the needs and desires of the target audience (Dann, 2000).
Ultimately, the product is everything that contributes to customer or consumer satisfaction; therefore, what is sold are satisfactions that are expected to be obtained through the consumption of that product, whose usefulness depends on its ability to satisfy a need.
Then, one of the main objectives of the "tourism system" should be the creation of markets and provide satisfactions from the product affirmation that Baker and Crompton, 2000 base. The term "generic product" refers to the conceptual utility produced by an industry determined and in the case of tourism, the function of the "generic product" is to facilitate the trip and all the activity carried out by individuals far from their usual environment.
Therefore, given the need, importance and implications of establishing a valid definition of what we call “tourism product”, we will deal with this aspect below.
1.3.1) Definition of tourism product
The "tourist product" has its origin in Western Europe at the beginning of the 1950s. Although it must be mentioned that its remote antecedents date back to the year 1850, when Tomas Bennett, an English travel agent, created the so-called Individual Inclusive Tour, known by the acronym IIT.
To date there have been countless definitions of "tourism product", however it is valid to highlight the technical rigor provided by Cárdenas (1991: 15): "the tourism product is made up of the set of goods and services that are they offer the market individually or in a very wide range of combinations resulting from the needs, requirements or desires of a consumer we call a tourist ”. In other words, from the perspective of the tourist, the "tourist product" can be considered as an experience, in the course of which very diverse products are used.
Regarding this, Medlik and Middleton (1973: 78) affirm that: “as regards tourism, the tourist can choose from a very wide range of products from the moment they leave their home until they return. Thus, then, the “tourist product” can be considered as an amalgam of attractions, of varied destination offers and of accessibility to the different places. In other words, the product is not just a seat on a plane or a hotel room, or a rest on a beach, but the amalgamation of many, many intangible components of a tangible package ”.
Therefore, the “tourist product” must offer the consumer a set of functional and psychological utilities, the former being those that satisfy basic needs, and the latter those related to the symbolic value granted by the tourist to the chosen place or activity., and to social value compared to reference groups (Middleton, 1995).
In summary, if all of the above is taken into account (tourist offer), the tourist product would be the set of combinations and synergistic interaction of multiple benefits, tangible and intangible, that are offered to a consumer called a tourist throughout their experience and towards a space (destination) desired, in order to satisfy their needs and desires (Pons, 2000).
Once the conceptual framework of the "tourist product" has been established, we believe it is appropriate to refer to its most important and differentiating characteristics, so that we can deepen our knowledge.
1.3.2) Characteristics of the tourism product
When a customer purchases a product, they are actually looking for the service that owning that product provides, and in turn, any service delivery process needs to rely on some products to make that service tangible. So product and services are complemented.
Particularly in the characteristics of the product in question, in the "tourist product mix", the intangible elements (relaxation, image) dominate over the tangible elements (buildings, food, gifts), requiring an effort to make the service tangible (Kotler et al., 1997)
The doctrine on service marketing is relatively unanimous in recognizing four basic characteristics that can be attributed to services in a generic way (Eiglier and Langeard, 1989): a) intangibility, b) inseparability, c) heterogeneity and d) expiration. But there are three other characteristics, in addition to the above, that can be associated with "tourism products" in a particular way, and that have been recognized by different researchers (Middleton, 1988; Holloway and Robinson, 1995; Ascanio, 1991; Acerenza, 1990): e) aggregability, f) seasonality and g) greater subjectivity
To detect the perception of the characteristics of companies, products, brands, places, among others, a study of their image must be carried out (Murphy et al., 2000); However, specifically, based on the conceptualization carried out, imaging studies must pursue:
1. The characteristics or attributes that define the image and that are important to consumers, both positively and negatively, must be known. (Features can be tangible, symbolic, and social).
2. Evaluate the spontaneous or assisted notoriety of products, brands or entities, places, that is, it is necessary to evaluate, measure the degree of knowledge in themselves, and with respect to others (defined attributes).
3. Find characteristics that differentiate, in the perceived images of the relevant attributes, the relative position of the company, brand or product.
4. Determine what is the best position for the product or brand; Imaging studies must be developed in relative terms, not in absolute terms, since consumers can value an attribute very positively, but this judgment does not necessarily imply a competitive advantage, since it can also be possessed by competitors.
However, periodically, it will be necessary to check if the differences found are maintained.
The analysis of the product (or brand) requires that at different moments or phases of the life cycle (of the product) checks are made of how it is perceived, and attempts are made, on occasions, to change the image policy of the same to favor the sales of the product. himself (Murphy et al., 2000; Pearce, 2000). Due to causes such as the age of the product, changes in consumer tastes, or the appearance of competitors, difficulties may be encountered with the product itself, so an analysis of it facilitates the implementation of commercial strategies in general.It is also important to know how a product is represented in the minds of consumers, so it is essential to design a product positioning strategy.The positioning issue has taken on a relevant role within the new marketing strategies, despite its conceptual ambiguity. which leads him to be confused with the term perceived image. Therefore, it is necessary to define and develop the concept of positioning, as something other than the image, and delimit it appropriately.
1.4) Conceptualization of product / brand positioning
The concept of positioning arises due to the research carried out by Ries and Trout on the packaging of the products, from the appreciation of the shape and size of the containers in relation to the sale price, compared to those of their competition. Later, these same authors expanded the meaning of the word positioning, designating with it the perceptions that consumers have as a result of the subjective characteristics of a brand or product (Ries and Trout, 1989; Kotler, 1983).
The positioning is the result of a mental comparison between the contents of the perceived message and the existing ones of other similar messages previously perceived. Thus, the positioning of a brand or a product in the minds of consumers (who are the recipients of the messages) is not only that which corresponds to their own attributes, but also that which results from perceiving the attributes of the competition.
In this sense, Martín Armario (1993) defines the term positioning as: “the conception of a product and its image in order to give it a specific place in the mind of the consumer compared to other competing products”. Therefore, this concept of positioning can be applied to a product, a service, an organization, a place, and even a person.
However, it is understood that the terms image and positioning should be conveniently defined and that their fundamental difference lies in the strategic nature of the latter concept. In this sense, Ortega (1987) states: “the study of the image of a brand consists of determining the attributes or characteristics that consumers consider the brand to have, the perception of these attributes and the role they can play in the attitude of consumers. consumers towards it; the positioning of brands or products in the market consists of studying the image of existing brands to provide the new company brand with the most appropriate attributes for the market segment in which it is desired ”. In other words,it is about defining the satisfaction that the brand can provide to the consumer and placing it in the most appropriate market segment.
Therefore, in order to define the perceptions that customers have about the brand, and to determine its relative positioning in comparison with the others, which compete with it in the same market, it is necessary to use adequate research and analysis procedures.
The concept and importance of positioning is based on the fact that consumers have a certain perception of the different products and brands that they find in the market (Martín Armario, 1993).
The perception that customers have about the brand is formed as a result of the different impressions, sensations and information they receive about the product, and crystallizes in their minds in a classification that establishes a preferential order of the different offers on the market, in such a way that your purchase decision normally falls on the brands or products "positioned" in the first places of that classification.
In short, it can be said that positioning is the taking of a concrete and definitive position in the mind of the person or subjects in perspective to whom a certain offer or option is directed; in such a way that the client, faced with a need that said offer or option can satisfy, gives priority to satisfying it with the aforementioned offer over other similar ones.
Therefore, the positioning, taking into account its conceptualization, is the result of a voluntary action on the part of the company and in no case, the result of a process of natural formation of the image of the product in the mind of the consumer (Ries and Trout, 1989).
Positioning is a voluntary action of the company and as such it must:
1. mark through attributes, the differential characteristics of the product in the minds of consumers, in order to identify it and distinguish it from competitors;
2. Associate the product with values recognized in the market and organize the marketing-mix program to achieve communication that allows feedback on the product itself in the market.
Arnott and Easingwood (1994) in this sense, conclude that the positioning of an interchangeable offer in the market is a deliberate and iterative process of defining, measuring, modifying and directing consumer perceptions. Now, if the main objective of positioning is to differentiate in the minds of consumers the products offered by companies; To achieve this differentiation, the entity must:
1. provide a benefit valued by consumers;
2. differentiation must not be offered by competitors;
3. The activities carried out by the entity must not be imitable, competing companies cannot adopt the positioning strategy;
4. The tasks carried out by the company must be understandable to consumers and they must have ways of communicating their criteria to the organization;
5. The application of the strategy must be profitable for the company and affordable for the market.
Therefore, the analysis of the positioning and the conclusions that can be drawn from it create a very necessary conceptual frame of reference for the evaluation of the different marketing strategies that the company has used or may use in the future. Positioning must be more than just a part of each entity's market strategy; It should be the backbone of your product design and development and a key thought of your business plan.
Once the most important concepts and theoretical aspects about the image and positioning of products and brands in general have been studied; In the next sections, we will focus our attention, specifically, on the development of the fundamental concepts and aspects that define the image and positioning of tourism products.
1.4.1) Positioning of a tourism product
For a tourism product, in accordance with the characteristics of the sector and the particularities inherent in its image, the concept of positioning is broadened to include not only the "tourism product" itself, but also "policies and practices" through of which it is provided (the operational strategy); the "tourism system" in which it is provided, the destination that provides it and the "recipient" (or client), who plays an important role in the provision of tourism services (See figure 2).
That is why the positioning strategy is a key element in the management of tourism brands (Pearce, 2000); Without a positioning strategy, there is no possibility of a correct definition of the management policy and brand image in tourism. But in addition, the positioning refers to the perceived image, which does not necessarily have to correspond to the real characteristics of the tourism product included under the brand, but rather it will reflect the utility or benefits perceived.
The positioning strategy defines the basic marketing option in a specific tourism market, taking into account:
a) the possibility of obtaining an adequate positioning of the tourism brand (product) which may in turn be a criterion that determines the selection of the target segment;
b) the positioning of the “tourism product” helps tourist destinations to achieve a sustainable competitive advantage (Kotler et al., 1997).
Thus, the positioning of the product can be defined as the place that the tourist product occupies in the mind of the consumer, attending to a number of fundamental attributes, which can be tangible or intangible (Kotler et al., 1997).
The positioning of the tourism product will be affected not only by the action initiated by the company to which it belongs in particular, but also by the actions or activities carried out by its competitors (Pearce, 2000).
Following the theory of Heath and Wall (1992), the positioning strategy of a product must be developed taking into account other entities that offer a similar tourist product to the same market. In other words, it is the "art" of developing and communicating significant differences between the tourist product offered, and those competing products that serve the same market (Kotler et al., 1997).
In fact, a brand encompasses a wide variety of tourist services that determine what the visitor considers a tourist product (Kotler et al., 1997), sometimes it happens that a specific service is by itself a tourist product. The quality of the tourism product itself, conditions the selection of the destination, so it depends on this that the tourist travel to said destination and make a prolonged stay there. Consequently, the aspects related to tourist destinations will be studied in depth.
1.5) The image of a tourist destination
Today tourism affects every continent, country and city. The economy is influenced, both by people who travel to other parts (import expenses elsewhere) and by exports of tourist services (consumption made by tourists in the places they visit). Tourist destinations must decide which source markets are the most important, and which ones they want to capture, because despite the fact that tourism is currently the fastest growing sector, like any industry it depends on cycles, fashions, intense competition and the environment in general (Kotler et al., 1997).
That is why, first, what is understood as a tourist destination will be established, and then focus attention on the most important conceptual aspects of their image.
1.5.1) Definition of tourist destination
When referring to the components of the tourism product, it is mentioned that most of them refer to: attractions, facilities (services and facilities), the inhabitants of the destination, infrastructure and superstructure, distinguishing these to destinations, therefore that this is revealed as the main nucleus of the tourist system. It is the destinations and their image that attract tourists, motivate the visit and set the entire system in motion, and of course, they are the point of consumption of the multiple activities that comprise the tourist experience: the one lived in the destination.
In fact, tourists travel to tourist destinations. It is therefore considered as a tourist destination, taking into account the contributions of Valls, (1992), Kotler et al., (1997) and Coltman (1989b), any geographical element, whether or not it is an administrative division, capable of being identified with some denomination of any type, that is, sites with some form of real or perceived limit that attract non-local visitors (tourists) (see table 2).
Table 2
Definitions of Tourist Destinations
| Author | Definition |
| . Valls (1992) | . "Any geographical element, whether or not an administrative division, capable of being identified under a name of whatever type" * For Valls, a name of a tourist destination could be the geographical name of a country, region or town where the products are found. They have very defined characteristics, which are the result of natural factors or the manufacturing processes themselves. It emphasizes, above all, the geographical character of a destination and its attractions in general. |
| . Kotler et al., (1997) | . "They are sites with some form of real or perceived limit, such as the physical limit of an island, political borders or even borders created by the market, such as those of a travel agency" * Like Valls (1992) emphasize the geographic character of the destination in general. |
Source: self made.
It is clear that the desire to become a recognized tourist destination presents a difficult marketing challenge if we take into account that the realization of a strategic diagnosis and the establishment of general objectives and adequate market strategies should be considered, where image and positioning strategies play a role. a preponderant place as a determining factor in all the destination's marketing programs and actions.
It is good to emphasize and bear in mind that when we talk about a destination (a country, for example) and its image, there are differences with respect to the image of a company or a specific product. This is due to the particular sensitivity of a tourist destination regarding: climatic variables; set of very diverse products and services; companies of various kinds; civil society institutions; government system; degree of internationalization of the economy; international conjunctural relations; anthropological, cultural, artistic, literary, monumental, festive, folkloric, gastronomic aspects; history and social structure; etc. (Witt et al. 1991; Valls, 1992; Pearce, 2000; Coltman, 1989b; Leiper, 1995). In short, due to the particularities of the tourist supply and demand that characterize the sector.
According to several authors, different destinations do not sufficiently differentiate their offer and have made the mistake of simply offering what characterizes them.
The problem for a destination that is considered an area of specific tourist products is that the holidays it offers could be easily substitutable if purchasing decisions are determined by prices based on the currency exchange; compared to the offer in other destinations of quality tourist products, which confer status. In an offer of products without more, the consumer is not aware of any of the specific benefits of the characteristics of a destination.
By directing the planning process correctly it is possible to move towards the status position, then the justification for buying a vacation is not the low cost, but rather that the destination is considered as having a special attraction that cannot be found elsewhere. Once a destination has created an image of having a special attraction, consumers perceive an added value in the product. This can culminate in an area that is considered fashionable, because the consumer wants to be associated with the status developed in that destination (Pearce, 2000).
Fate, given its distinctive characteristics, is not reduced to objective reality, what exists, but is also defined by what is thought to exist, that is, by the way it is represented in the minds of consumers (Kotler et al., 1993). From this follows the fact that the concept of image is so important (Kotler et al, 1997). It cannot be limited to defining the destination from an objective point of view, as a mere inventory of attractions, facilities and services, but we must consider the subjective perception of the tourist (real or potential), which is influenced by the image of a Tourist Product.
In this way, the fundamental issues studied in the chapter lead to a marketing investigation supported by an exploratory investigation, where aspects related to the tourism product and its positioning in the tourist destination Caibarién are addressed.
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Understand a person's usual environment as the area around his place of residence plus all those places he frequently visits.
A review of the different conceptual delimitations developed around the tourist destination is presented in table 2.1.
We have seen that it included, among other aspects, the analysis of current tourism demand, identification of potential tourism markets, of the strengths and weaknesses of the tourism product itself and of the main competitors, identification of risks and market opportunities in general., of the key factors of success in the markets, etc.
One of the defined components of the "tourist product" is precisely the image.
