This paper analyzes the evolution of new information and knowledge technologies, their importance in a world globalized by knowledge, giving importance to software as a significant tool in ICT. In addition, a historical study of the concept of strategy is made, with updated bibliography, making evaluations of the application of this concept for its application and consideration in the implementation of new information and knowledge technologies, and specifically in the software industry as an appendix to ICT.
1. Information and Knowledge Technologies (ICT).
The new information and knowledge technologies have stood out, for some years now, as the industry that will mark the definitive future of the planet. More and more this branch is inserted and gains strength in all sectors of the nations.
Its dizzying rise and its application in innumerable ways with increasing positive results are an attraction for any country seeking to increase its development.
However, it is a branch where strategy can appear as the key to success since the different offers in which it is shown and the many forms of application can contribute to not following the proper order in its implementation.
1.1 Evolution of new technologies.
The last decade of the last century was marked by a convergence between electronics, computing and telecommunications, which determine the fundamental axis of the transformations in information technology.
As a result of this convergence, concepts such as "Digital Age", "New Technologies", "New Information Technologies", "Information Technologies" appear, among others.
The Information and Knowledge Technologies (TIC for its acronym in Spanish) conceptualize this convergence of microelectronic computing, telecommunications and data processing techniques, defining as its main components: the human factor, the content of the elements information, equipment, physical infrastructure, information exchange mechanisms, financial resources and regulatory policies and laws.
These transformations in electronics, computing and communications acquire their greatest exponent with the rise of the Internet due to the new way that facilitates fast communication between geographically distant points and the versatility of its use for business and business purposes.
Information has become the driving force behind social, economic and cultural changes. The telecommunications boom has produced a transformation in information and communication technologies, the impact of which has affected all sectors of the economy and society.
However, history has shown that technological development can be a double-edged sword, associated with dangerous side effects. What is known today as the Internet started from a project developed in the United States called ArpaNet for military purposes, contrary to peace and development. More than a century ago, Federico Engels (1973) stated:
"… we must not boast of all our victories over nature (…..) although it is true that the first consequences of this victory are as foreseen, very different secondary consequences may appear, totally unforeseen that not infrequently cancel the first ones".
1.2 The technology gap
Historically, it has been shown that companies must find the appropriate way to insert scientific advances into their production processes, but it is important not to ignore what is being done with other available means and forms.
For companies, the application of Information and Knowledge Technologies (hereinafter ICT) can be a key point in their development as well as in their success. Most countries try to adapt to a technologically globalized world and therefore different strategies have been created for their insertion.
There are numerous companies that operate on the basis of new technologies with a global scope of operations and, however, they are considered small or medium-sized under the traditional parameters of number of employees or number of investments in fixed assets.
In the real possibility of the use of ICT, the balance moves in an order far from equity, which means that the opportunity cost is highly unbalanced, of course bearing the worst part the less developed continents. According to recent statistics (www.internetworldstats.com) with closing March 31, 2009, and for a period from 2000 to 2008 offered, we can verify significant differences (Table 1).
As can be seen in the table, the most developed countries are leading the way in Internet use. The most significant figures are those of Europe, North America and Oceania due to the high penetration in the use of the large network and, on the contrary, Africa, which presents the lowest value. In other words, for every 49 European citizens or for every 75 North American citizens who acquire the Internet, only 5 Africans can do so in the same time frame. Latin America does not have a better part either, because while Australia and Oceania have increased the number of users from 2000 to last year by 60.4 percent, Latin America did for 29.9 percent, less than double.
Poor countries also face the emigration of their qualified professionals in new technologies after having assumed the expense of their professional training, often due to salary offers that their economies cannot offer, which increases their disadvantages much more, lengthening the technological gap.
In Cuba, the possibilities of exploiting ICTs are subject to special conditions that notably increase these disadvantages. Our country must not only manage the conditions associated with an underdeveloped Third World nation, but also, through hostile policies and outside any legal framework, the governments of the United States of America have implemented measures that prevent the proper evolution of Cuba. for the use of these technologies.
The Ministry of Foreign Relations of Cuba, (www.cubaminrex.cu) announces some of the policies and their consequences, shown below:
Since 1962, Cuba has prohibited access to telecommunications and computer equipment of any US company or subsidiary. Only in the telephone activity, losses amounted to 21.7 million dollars in 2002.
The Helms Burton Act frustrated the creation of a joint venture for the production of fiber optic, coaxial and data transmission cables, which meant the loss of tens of millions of dollars annually.
The cell phone company CUBACEL has been affected by the impossibility of entering into automatic roaming agreements with its counterparts on the American continent. These damages are estimated at two million dollars.
Due to the blockade, Cuba has not been able to acquire the technology for digital signature, essential for electronic commerce, and for this reason since 2000 this program that would allow producers from eastern Cuba to sell their goods and services over the Internet has been paralyzed.
US law prohibits the export or re-export to certain countries, including Cuba, software products from US companies.
On April 10, 2003, the US Department of Commerce denied an export license to USA / Cuba-Infomed, which intended to donate 423 computers that would be installed in Cuban hospitals and polyclinics, and it was not until July 1994 that the Department The US Treasury decided to authorize the transfer of data and information to Cuba from any North American server, as long as it did not involve the transfer of money to the Island.
But Cuba cannot connect to the Internet at the speed it wants to or with as many independent channels and providers as it can choose. Each time an attempt is made to add a new channel to the Internet, the US counterpart must obtain the appropriate license from the US Department of the Treasury.
Cuba has been unable to access global networks using fiber optic submarine cable due to restrictions imposed by the blockade.
Without a doubt, ICTs decisively influence the level of development of nations and the well-being of human beings. The urgency in its implementation, assimilation and use mark decisive points of necessary changes for the countries, once it is understood that information has become the driving force behind social, economic and cultural changes at a global level.
1.3 Importance of Information and Knowledge Technologies.
The increase of the agrarian sector and the maximum exploitation of the land, just over a century ago, was the way to obtain wealth. Some years later, technological development and new forms of production related to the industrial model made possible the massive production of consumer goods.
At present, efficiency in productivity, the rational use of resources, the speed with which information is handled for decision-making are of decisive importance for the economy and development of a country. With greater influence New Technologies characterized by changing, following the rhythm of continuous scientific advances and in a framework of economic and cultural globalization, contribute to the rapid obsolescence of knowledge and the emergence of new values, causing continuous transformations in our economic structures, social and cultural, and affecting almost all aspects of our life: access to the job market, health, bureaucratic management, economic management, industrial and artistic design, entertainment, communication, information,the way of perceiving reality and thinking, the organization of companies and institutions, their methods and activities, the form of interpersonal communication, quality of life, education… Its great impact on all areas of our life makes each time more difficult that we can act efficiently without them.
Factors such as the knowledge system, flexibility, growing competition, the potential of electronic businesses, the development of knowledge technology, the emergence of dot com companies, new ways of doing business (redefinition of products and services, impacts on channels of commercialization and identification of markets, among others) are intrinsically related to the use of new technologies and form the backbone of the current forms necessary for economic advancement.
As the main contributions of ICTs to human activities are specified in a series of functions that make it easier for us to carry out our jobs because, whatever they may be, they always require certain information to do so, a certain data process and often also communication with other people; and this is precisely what new technologies offer us.
To get an idea, in 2008 (www.exportapymes.com) a movement of 827 million dollars was estimated in the information technology sector only in Argentina.
ICTs have caused significant impacts at the social level and their use has become a necessity.
Traditional concepts such as office work, such as a group of people grouped together to develop a job, can be replaced, thanks to the facilities offered by new technologies, by a model where they work thousands of kilometers apart from each other and can efficiently carry out their activities.
ICT in organizations or companies, presuppose the existence of a technological platform, which offers, among many others, the following advantages:
- Improved business results Decreased costs Improved communication between all those involved in the business Improved product costs Improved processes Management of relationships with suppliers Management of relationships with customers employees Training.
1.4 Software as the main tool in the use of ICT.
The most important thing, in the development of new technologies, is the possibility of integration between the different branches that compose them, that is to say computing, communications and electronics. In this sense, the software that handles these technologies becomes the unifying concurrency factor to guarantee their full exploitation.
Thus, for example, cellular telephony is even more practical and useful thanks to the computer codes that allow the total availability of its technological advantages to the users, compared to traditional telephone systems.
At the beginning of the 1980s and throughout the decade, personal computers at home were already seen as an achievable dream and with this, desktop software was born, which has been evolving exponentially until today.
Consulting specialized literature we find that, according to Rumbaugh (2000):
The product obtained is a software system. The term product here refers to the entire system, and not just the code that is delivered. The software is not explicitly seen as the summation of codes that determine a functionality and use, but rather as the entire process that involves it.
Probably the most formal definition of software is the one offered by IEEE (1993):
It is the set of computer programs, procedures, rules, documentation and associated data that are part of the operations of a computer system.
Other forms, for example Pressman (2003), relate the software to the intangible part that controls the computer (specifically the tangible part of the computer known as hardware), that is, a set of instructions that controls the hardware. However, these are incomplete because with the development of new technologies, software does not exist only to manage computers. For example, software packages exist to control audio file management and playback devices, telephone devices, etc.
In general, the software is classified into two large groups according to the work they do, namely:
- Operating systems (or system software) that control the work and operation of the computer. Application software that provides solutions to specific tasks for which the computer is used.
Another definition of software, based primarily on the freedom of its use, is that of free software (www.gnu.org) which determines the freedom of users to run, copy, distribute, study, change and improve the software. More precisely, it refers to four types of freedoms for software users:
- The freedom to run the program, for any purpose. The freedom to study how the program works, and adapt it to your needs. Access to the source code The freedom to redistribute copies The freedom to improve the program and publish its improvements and versions for the benefit of the entire community that uses it.
The existence of Free Software, guarantees for its conceptions of distribution and use considerable opportunities to achieve the use of computer programs necessary in the manipulation of new technologies, as well as the possibility of obtaining and using these programs for the creation of other specific ones, offering the autonomy in computer solutions for companies and countries in general.
As for any creative process, there are standards to measure the quality of the finished product, mainly the standards established by ISO / IEC. Thus, according to ISO 8402 terminology it is defined:
Quality: Set of properties and characteristics of a product or service that give it its ability to satisfy explicit or implicit needs.
Quality control: Set of techniques and activities of an operational nature, used to verify the requirements related to the quality of the product or service.
Quality assurance: A set of planned and systematic actions necessary to provide adequate confidence that a product or service will satisfy the given quality requirements.
In terms of measuring quality (www.tecnomaestros), the standard, which has been adopted by more than 130 countries for use, is becoming the primary means by which customers can judge the competence of a software developer. One of the problems with the ISO 9001 standard is that it is not specific to the industry: it is expressed in general terms, and can be interpreted by the developers of various products.
However, an attempt has been made to define a specific standard for the industry, marking as the most relevant ISO 9001, ISO 9000-3 and ISO 9004 - 2, finally defining the ISO 9126 standard that has been developed in an attempt to Identify the key quality attributes for the software. The standard identifies 6 key quality attributes:
- 1. Functionality: the degree to which the software meets the needs indicated by the following sub-attributes: suitability, correctness, interoperability, compliance, and security. Reliability: amount of time the software is available for use. It is referred to by the following sub-attributes: maturity, fault tolerance, and ease of recovery. 3. Usability: degree to which the software is easy to use. It is reflected by the following sub-attributes: ease of understanding, ease of learning and operability. 4. Efficiency: degree to which the software makes optimal use of system resources. It is indicated by the following sub-attributes: time of use and resources used. 5. Ease of maintenance: the ease with which a modification can be made. It is indicated by the following sub-attributes:ease of analysis, ease of change, stability and ease of testing 6. Portability: the ease with which the software can be carried from one environment to another. It is referred to by the following sub-attributes: ease of installation, ease of adjustment, ease of adaptation to change.
Making own the concept of software quality that enunciates the IEEE Standard Computer Dictionary in IEEE (1993):
Software quality is the degree to which a system, component, or process meets the specified requirements and the needs or expectations of the customer or user.
As has been seen, the software constitutes, in most cases, the control tool for new technologies, allowing them to be handled, used their benefits and given the maximum exploitation, the reason for which they were created or acquired. But software, as an industry, has quickly become a source of considerable income and therefore many countries have outlined strategies to increase their skills and knowledge in this industry. India, being a poor nation, stands out as the top producing country in the software industry.
The dependence on New Technologies can then be established between the electronic part (hardware) and the software part as a bridge that allows the humanly understandable and useful use of new advances, so much so that it would be illogical to assume the use of a computer without a system operational and a set of programs that allow us to exploit it.
For companies, technological advances generally determine a change in the business model and therefore it is necessary that a study be carried out to determine how its functionality is affected and to determine a strategy that allows it to incorporate these technological changes and achieve or maintain competitive advantages. Strategies determine the rate of change of a company with respect to those of its environment and therefore these can determine the fundamental role for success. Therefore, it is important to know the essential content and evolution of the concept of strategy, which is discussed below.
1.5 Evolution of the concept of strategy.
The concept of strategy is old. The word comes from the Greek strategeia, Strategos or the art of the general in war, coming from the fusion of two words: stratos (army) and agein (leading, guiding), which means the art or science of being a general. Greek generals had to lead an army, win and seize territories, protect cities, suppress the enemy, and so on. So each type of objective required a different deployment of resources. Similarly, the strategy of an army could be defined as the pattern of actions it performs to respond to the enemy. The concept of strategy is the subject of many definitions, which indicates that there is no universal definition. Thus, according to different authors, some definitions of this concept are described.
The concept "strategy" is introduced in the academic field since 1944 with the theory of games by Von Newman and Morgerstern (Newman & Morgenstern, 1964).
The changes in the environment that occurred after the Second World War have determined that the strategic conception is decisive in the direction of organizations, because factors such as the pace of change in the environment have increased rapidly and showing an increasing trend with the weather. The foregoing, in part because the greater interdependence between environmental factors has led to more complex demands regarding administrative operations and a shorter life cycle of innovative ideas; and in another sense because there has been an obvious growth in the size and complexity of business organizations.
In the field of management theory, it was announced in the United States of America in 1962 and exposed in the book by Igor Ansoff (1991), “Corporate Strategies”. Ansoff (1962), defines strategy as the dialectic of the company with its environment. This author considers that planning and strategic direction are different concepts, raises the superiority of the second.
In 1962, he was introduced to the field of management theory, by Chandler (1962) and Andrews (1962), and they define it as the joint determination of the company's objectives and the lines of action to achieve them. In the definition made by Andrews there is an aspect worth highlighting, and it is the explicit statement made by the author of his concept about the importance of other values for companies, not necessarily economic, such as, for example, human solidarity. the love of nature, honesty and other values that exalt people and therefore must be taken into account when analyzing human behavior in the organization. Tabatorny and Jarniu (Tabatorny & Jarniu,1975) state that it is the set of decisions that determine the coherence of the company's initiatives and reactions to its environment.
According to Menguzzatto (1994) the business strategy
… Makes explicit the general objectives of the company and the fundamental courses of action, in accordance with the current and potential means of the company, in order to achieve its insertion in the socio-economic environment.
An assessment that relates the company plan, management and strategy as a way to achieve viability between the two is offered by Waterman (1998) stating that:
Executives learn when they develop the Company Plan, but once they have made the plan, they can throw it away, since the important thing is the management and not the plan itself.
Charles Hoffer and Schendel (1979) point out what strategy they are: the basic characteristics of the match that an organization makes with its environment and that emerged from the old approaches to formulating policies and initial strategy.
The historical and scientific analysis of strategy has evolved into the more active terms of strategic planning and strategic management, since both anecdotal evidence and research have proven their validity in preparing managers to face today's rapidly changing business environment.
One of the general, more successful ways to define strategy is the one offered. Stoner (2007) refers to the general program to define and achieve the objectives of an organization; the organization's response to its environment over time.
Continuing with this analysis, the strategy can be defined from two points of view determined by: what the organization intends to do and what the organization finally does. These points of view include first the strategy as:… the general program to define and achieve the objectives of the organization and to implement its mission.
This implies an active, rational and well-defined role on the part of managers when formulating the organization's strategy. And the second perspective focuses on strategy as:… the pattern of the organization's responses to its environment over time.
Therefore, every organization has a strategy, although it may not be formally defined, corresponding to the type of organization that does not anticipate changes in the environment, that does not investigate and passively adjusts to the environment when the need is unavoidable. At present the environment is highly unstable, conditioning almost all organizations as an external factor that should not be lost sight of, since not only would maintaining competitive advantages but the very existence of the organization would be in danger.
The relationship of the strategy is interesting, seen from a more dynamic angle based on the commercialization offered by Lewit (1990) and states that:
The marketing concept forces the company to think about what it is doing and why, and then to develop a plan or strategy to achieve its objective, so that the manager knows what and where the company's markets are; provide effective service with respect to the customer and the product; Sell to the largest number of customers possible through the most efficient sales and distribution channels, and adequately support the product with advertising and sales promotion. It encourages an integrated effort of all its components to achieve the objectives.
Similarly, the strategy is conditioned to any of the factors involved in the performance and objectives of an organization, which determines that a strategy is not the static sum of the vision, mission, values to be developed, objectives and goals of an organization, but the constant analysis of the relationship between these aspects and the dynamics of the environment.
Historically, efficient managers have outlined great strategies, but only recently has strategy been recognized as a key factor in the success of organizations.
The concepts and definitions that we currently recognize in relation to obtaining strategies are the result of exhaustive analysis and research by scholars of the subject. In this sense, Betancourt (2000) states:
The Strategic Management model is the model of this paradigm of change. If we are able to impose the pace of change, we will always be one step ahead of the competition, forcing it to react to us. As long as the competition is pending to survive, we will be maintaining our competitive advantages. Strategic Management is the art of anticipating and managing change, with the purpose of permanently creating strategies that guarantee the future of organizations.
As can be seen, all the cited authors partially coincide in their definitions; However, two fundamental trends can be clearly perceived: The first refers to the dynamics of the company with its environment; the second, defends the art of generating objectives, programs and policies and the way to achieve them as a way to fulfill its mission.
It is considered that for organizations the strategies must respond to the Vision and Mission of the organization and must be developed in a democratic and participatory manner. The objective of a strategy must be capable of producing the necessary elements so that the Vision, Mission and Values have a field of action within the organization and its environment.
However, despite the aforementioned, an in-depth study on the concepts of business strategy carried out by Ronda and López (Ronda and López, 2008) offers the following conclusions:
The study carried out confirms that there is a high level of dispersion in the theoretical perspective of strategic management and different views on the same topic can be clearly identified. The authors specify, in their definition, the aspects that they consider essential, which means that there is no consensus on what business strategy really is so that it is generally accepted.
As can be seen, despite the multiple contributions made by all the authors who have dedicated efforts to researching the subject of business strategy, a generally accepted paradigm on which a solid theoretical perspective is built has not yet appeared, which emphasizes the youth of this research field and the need to continue conducting theoretical research on it.
There is coincidence that, to define a business strategy, the following processes are required:
- Environmental Analysis: Study of the operating environment of the company, observe the market and the environment, to know its trends, stagnations and where they are moving.Organizational Analysis: It involves knowing the strengths and limitations of the organization, its resources, its culture, the leadership and analyze the capacities required or developed to face the future. Opportunity Analysis: It allows to know the elements of the environment that can be opportunities for the company, or threats, that with adequate attention to limitations, can be converted into opportunities. Development of the Business Model: It consists of detailing the conceptual model of the company that is needed to capitalize on the opportunities in the environment. It is based on the Mission, Vision and Nuclear Values of the organization.
And from the above considerations derives the Strategic Management process that comprises:
- Gap study: It allows to identify and evaluate the difference between what we currently have and what is required to build the desired organization model. Action planning: It consists of defining the key areas of essential results for the change of the organization. These areas must be associated with the identified gaps. Development of multiplier strategies: It involves involving the entire organization and its leaders in action, allowing everyone in their area to assume responsibility for the processes that concern them. The development of strategies must be the consequence of a democratic and highly participatory process of the organization, since that is where it is developed in Power of the People. From these elements it is easy to develop strategies that allow us to face the future successfully,as leaders and as an organization.
In organizations related to ICT, because these, in their dizzying boom, showed new paradigms, the idea of taking advantage and being the first to use them, without well-established strategies, made them incur huge expenses justified by having visionary actions and achieving leadership in a given sector. The so-called Internet Bubble shows the consequences that can be suffered when there is no solid and well-defined strategy.
As can be seen, the concept of strategy has been widely analyzed by different researchers and from various points of view, however there is no definition of the concept in a masterly way or applicable to any situation faced by those who must make a decision.
1.5.1 ICT strategies.
ICTs have revolutionized the way of doing business as they involve the modification of company costs, ease of communication between employees and suppliers, etc. A combination of business aspects as the main component, and technological aspects, of course assuming technology as a tool and not the end, defines the relationship between ICT and business according to Improven Consultores (2002):
For new technologies there are four basic elements: strategy, processes, technology and people. Processes, technology and people are interrelated, governed by strategy and its planning, which are defined as a set of actions to guarantee competitive advantages.
ICTs have made contributions to strategies as they have forced changes in business models to guide them towards the new actors involved in the process and towards new lines of business. In other words, with the incorporation of new technologies, many companies have become more flexible in their operation, reaching a refined way to meet their objectives and detecting greater opportunities to achieve them.
For the correct application of ICT strategies, they initially determine a great process of change and research in the businesses that apply them. Similarly, it is important to highlight that strategies must be constantly in a process of review, update and adjustment. For this, organizations must maintain periodic investigations that determine the state of competition, customer trends, etc., because even if the business works well, any change in the environment that has not been anticipated can be fatal for the operation of a company..
Conclusions
The software industry has its own characteristics that make it practically different from any other. Software production and services are subject to the early expiration of the final products, so updating them is also an opportunity or condition to keep under constant consideration.
As another factor, the rapid modernization of the technologies used in the production of software makes the constant study and updating of knowledge the key factor for the efficiency of a company of this type. The strategies to be taken depend, in many cases, on external factors such as the influence of large companies in the sector when developing products that mark their necessary use, either for customer requests or reasons to ensure business competitiveness.
The strategies in the software sector are highly dynamic and subject to modifications in the short and medium term to adjust and guarantee the correct functioning of the production process. The revolutionary activity of ICT, as an intrinsic factor, also leads to the constant change in the need for software products and services of end customers, so strategies must be adjusted to the conditions imposed by the sector itself.
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Co-author: Delis Cruz Regalado.
