1. Introduction
When I undertook the degree work, a requirement to qualify for the Bachelor's degree in Public Accounting, from the National Open University of Venezuela, one of the biggest concerns that arose were those related to when, why, how, who, what what and where they originated and made possible the development of accounting, in its different areas of application. Fortunately, Gertz's book, and the others consulted on the subject, came to solve all these questions. Considering the difficulties encountered, obviously, before discovering the existence of the books in question, a summary is presented below, also thinking that it will serve as support for future research.
Beyond the origins of accounting and its different areas of application, topics such as theory, functions, classifications, relationships and comparisons are dealt with, seen from a critical angle by people who, in my opinion, are of recognized trajectory and prestige.
2. History of accounting
The accounting
According to what was expressed by Gertz (1996), around 6000 BC, the necessary elements for accounting activity already existed: writing and numbers; the concept of property, a large volume of operations, coins and perhaps, credit in the markets, in this regard there is a clay tablet, dating from the time, of Sumerian origin, in which some researchers have believed to find records of income and expenses, single entry; others more audacious identify the records twice. There are accounts of accounting, both in Egypt and in Mesopotamia. Pagani, in his work I Libri Comerciali, "who when referring to the Athens of the 5th century BC, says that there were kings who imposed on merchants the obligation to keep certain books, in order to record the operations carried out…".
Continuing with Gertz (1996: 32), he affirms that «The first great Economic Empire known was that of Alexander the Great (356,323 BC),… the Greek bankers were famous in Athens, exercising their influence throughout the Empire. Of them it is said: «They kept accounts for their clients, which they had to show when they were sued; their skill, and their technical knowledge, made them frequently employed to examine the city's accounts "(History of Modern Bank of Isue, Conant)."
However, it is in Rome, where specific and incontrovertible testimonies are found on the accounting practice, since the first centuries of its founding, every head of the family recorded their income and expenses daily in a book called "Adversaria", which was a kind of draft, since monthly he transcribed them, with great care, in another book, the "Codex or Tubulae"; in which, on one side were the income (acceptum), and on the other the expenses (expensum). Gertz (1996: 42) also states, “it is known with certainty that both in the time of the Republic and of the Empire, accounting was carried out by commoners, but not the activity that can be considered as the antecedent of the auditor, the inspectors who were commissioned in order to inventory and review the various assets that made up the Roman heritage.It is also known that these accountants and auditors formed professional associations (S. Dill. The Roman Society). '
During the period from AD 453-1453, advances in accounting continued, including auxiliaries. However, for, it is the books of Francisco Datini (1366-1400) that show the image of double-entry accounting that involves, for the first time, property accounts proper; Indeed, since the Profit and Loss account had been invented, the problem that merchants of this time had of not being able to carry their merchandise in one account had been solved due to the fact that said effects had, logically, two prices, the of acquisition and sale cost, as a result of which the profit obtained made the Cash account appear with a difference in the entries of income and expenses, as a consequence of the aforementioned, but with the new account that collected the differences,Patrimonial accounts could be registered that followed the history of the merchandise and of the profits or losses obtained as a result of the traffic of the same. This accounting also presents the innovation that opened and closed operations biannually with a financial statement where the assets of the economic unit were clearly stipulated, reporting in it the result of operations such as the individual participation of the partners, which determined of the balance of the personal accounts that each partner of the company took. "This accounting also presents the innovation that opened and closed operations biannually with a financial statement where the assets of the economic unit were clearly stipulated, reporting in it the result of operations such as the individual participation of the partners, which determined of the balance of the personal accounts that each partner of the company took. "This accounting also presents the innovation that opened and closed operations biannually with a financial statement where the assets of the economic unit were clearly stipulated, reporting in it the result of operations such as the individual participation of the partners, which determined of the balance of the personal accounts that each partner of the company took. "
The 15th century arrives and with it two major events: The generalization of Arabic numerals and the printing press that would make accounting, like other sciences, enter a stage of dissemination. The book "Della mercatura et del mercanti perfetto" dates from that time, whose author was Benedetto Cotingli Rangeo, who finished writing it on August 25, 1458, and was published in 1573. Although the book touches accounting briefly, explains in a very clear way the identity of the double entry, the use of three books: the Notebook (Major), Giornale (Diary) and Memoriale (Draft), affirms that the records will be made in the Diary and from there they will be passed to the Mayor, which will have an index of accounts to facilitate its search, and that the situation of the company must be verified every year and a "Bilancione" must be drawn up;the losses and gains that it throws will be taken to Capital, it also speaks of the need to carry a copy book of letters. However, it is Fray Lucas de Paciolo, who in his book «Summa», published in 1494, refers to the accounting method, which has been known since then as «A lla Veneziana», which expands the information on commercial practices: companies, sales, interest, bills of exchange, etc. It touches the accounting issue in detail, then in other countries there would be publications that would expand the issue.that provides more information on commercial practices: companies, sales, interests, bills of exchange, etc. It touches the accounting issue in detail, then in other countries there would be publications that would expand the issue.that provides more information on commercial practices: companies, sales, interests, bills of exchange, etc. It touches the accounting issue in detail, then in other countries there would be publications that would expand the issue.
The nineteenth century arrived, and with it the Napoleon Code (1808), the Industrial Revolution began, Adam Smith and David Ricardo, put down the roots of liberalism, accounting began to have modifications of substance and form, under the name of «Principles of Accounting ", in 1887 the" American Association of Public Accountants "was founded, before, in 1854" The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Scotland ", in 1880" The Institute of Chartered Accountants of England and Wales ", similar bodies are constituted by France in 1881, Austria in 1885, Holland in 1895, Germany in 1896.
In the present century and as a result of the crisis of the 30s, in the United States, the American Institute of Public Accountants, organized academic and practical groups to evaluate the situation, from there emerged the first accounting principles, many of them still in force, others with modifications. Also, the crisis gave rise to the change of the "Certification" for the "Opinions" of the Financial Statements. In 1953 the CPA Handbook was published for the first time.
The costs
In the opinion of the researcher, it is as important to know the origins and development of Accounting, until today, as that of Costs, a fundamental part of this proposal. The researcher found Lorino's narration so interesting that he decided to insert it into this degree project. As can be seen below, the events and characters that created and contributed to the improvement of Cost Accounting and Activity-based Costs (ABC) are detailed in detail.
According to Lorino (1995: 7), he states that: «These methods were progressively developed between 1850 and 1910, particularly in large North American industry. Basically, the outcome of this process can be located in 1907, in Du Ponts de Nemours, although other techniques were later developed. Indeed, it was in 1907 when Donalson Brown, a collaborator of Pierre Du Pont de Nemours at the head of the chemical group, invented the formula that relates the index of return on capital, the index of profitability of the holding and the index of capital turnover. For the first time, the various types of accounting used until then independently (Capital Accounting, Financial Accounting, Cost Accounting) were linked in a single, global and coherent model, and constituted a complete economic image of the company…,still today, it serves as the basis for the management of the company and, therefore, often, for the activity in charge of monitoring the quality of this management: management control.
The invention of Donalson Brown finished off a long process of innovations that began in 1902 under the tutelage of the Du Pont brothers. This is how they were introduced successively: the allocation of indirect costs to calculate the full costs of the products, the accounting of assets at their acquisition value and the ratio of return on invested capital by division. In this work the Du Pont and their collaborators were largely inspired by the teachings of a man they had already had as a colleague at the Johnson and Lorain Steel Company: Frederick Taylor.
Taylor was indeed one of the pioneers of industrial management control: he was the one who developed analytical accounting, allocation of indirect costs, timing and tracking of direct labor times, standards, allocation indirect costs through labor times or machine times, inventory and material management and performance remuneration; and this between the years 1889 to 1895. It certainly exerted a determining influence on the management systems, not only in Du Pont de Nemours, but also in General Motors (a subsidiary, for a time of Du Pont de Nemours) and in General Electric, where the concept of standard cost was adopted and generalized based on these teachings. "
Activity-Based Costs
However, continues Lorino (1995: 3), «suddenly, with an upheaval that could be described as almost feverish, under the effect of multiple shocks, a part of the world industry has embarked on the revision, and even the reinvention, of the support of management constituted by the control tools, let us cite as an international example of applied research CMS (Cost Management System) of the cooperative group CAM-I (Consortium for advanced Manufacturing - International). This association was created in 1972 at the initiative of the large North American industrial groups to jointly organize and finance research programs in the field of production. It was an initiative that led to a dozen research programs on topics such as numerical control programming languages,computer-aided design and automatic gamut generation. In some of the industrial members of CAM-I, certain universities, such as Harvard and Stanford, and the large Anglo-Saxon auditing and advisory groups (the "Big Eight") launched a new program profoundly different from the previous ones, since it was oriented to management and not technology: the CMS program The objective was to create a new type of analytical accounting adapted to the environment of highly automated and integrated industries. The success was overwhelming, because, in one year, the program had absorbed only half of all CAM-I sponsors and funding. In 1988, CMS published, in association with Harvard Business School, the basic principles of the proposed approach,under the title "Cost Management for Today's Manufacturing." The book won, in 1989, the award of the "American Association of Accountants" reserved for the best work on Management Accounting. In 1990, CMS brought together forty companies, of which a third were from Europe and two thirds from the United States, from General Motors to Siemens, through IBM, Boeing, Procter and Gamble, Phillips, Alcatel, Lucas, Aeritalia, Bristish Aerospace, etc. The program was then called by Peter Ducker "the most challenging and innovative work in management today, in which new concepts, new methods and new approaches are taking shape in what could be called a new economic philosophy."the award of the «American Association of Accountants» reserved for the best work on Management Accounting. In 1990, CMS brought together forty companies, of which a third were from Europe and two thirds from the United States, from General Motors to Siemens, through IBM, Boeing, Procter and Gamble, Phillips, Alcatel, Lucas, Aeritalia, Bristish Aerospace, etc. The program was then called by Peter Ducker "the most challenging and innovative work in management today, in which new concepts, new methods and new approaches are taking shape in what could be called a new economic philosophy."the award of the «American Association of Accountants» reserved for the best work on Management Accounting. In 1990, CMS brought together forty companies, of which a third were from Europe and two thirds from the United States, from General Motors to Siemens, through IBM, Boeing, Procter and Gamble, Phillips, Alcatel, Lucas, Aeritalia, Bristish Aerospace, etc. The program was then called by Peter Ducker "the most challenging and innovative work in management today, in which new concepts, new methods and new approaches are taking shape in what could be called a new economic philosophy."Aeritalia, Bristish Aerospace, etc. The program was then called by Peter Ducker "the most challenging and innovative work in management today, in which new concepts, new methods and new approaches are taking shape in what could be called a new economic philosophy."Aeritalia, Bristish Aerospace, etc. The program was then called by Peter Ducker "the most challenging and innovative work in management today, in which new concepts, new methods and new approaches are taking shape in what could be called a new economic philosophy."
The result of this research gave rise to the concept of activities, in this regard in the preface by Brimson (1997: 9), Alfred King states: «Never before in the history of accounting has a concept passed so quickly from theory to practice as in the case of activity-based accounting, or activity-based costing. "
3. Accounting theory.
After the historical review, Accounting and Costs, the researcher considers it appropriate to expose the concepts, functions, classifications, relationships and comparisons of the platform that supports this degree work.
Concepts.
The accounting.
Kohler (1979: 109) argues that "The AICPA terminology committee in the United States proposed in 1941 that 'accounting' be defined as' the art of recording, classifying and summarizing in a meaningful and monetary way, transactions and events that are, at least in part, of a financial nature, as well as interpreting their results. "
Financial accounting.
For Kohler (1979: 114). "Accounting of income, expenses, assets and liabilities that are commonly kept in the general offices of a business…"
Cost accounting.
For Rayburn, (1987: 14). “Cost accounting is then that part of Accounting that identifies, measures, reports and analyzes the different cost elements, direct or indirect, associated with the manufacture of a good and / or the provision of a service. In the Cost Accumulation Process for Inventory Valuation and Profit Determination, the needs of external users and management are met. In addition, Cost Accounting provides management with accurate and timely information for planning, controlling and evaluating company operations. "
Accounting By Activities
For Brimson (1997: 247).2 "The accumulation of information on operational and financial performance in relation to the significant activities of a company."
Also for Brimson (1997: 26), he says in this regard: “The activity accounting approach to cost management divides the company into activities. An activity describes what a company does, how time is consumed and the outputs (outputs) of the processes. The main function of an activity is to convert resources (materials, labor and technology) into outputs (outputs). Activity accounting identifies the activities carried out in an organization and determines their cost and performance (time and quality). "
The activity-based costing system.
Also called ABC System (Activity Based Cost System), which according to Álvarez et al. (1996: 304), «… is given an eminently accounting dimension that, based on this new philosophy, provides quite renewed information regarding the methods At the same time, it complements and supports the general objectives ascribed to the so-called ABM…, with respect to the ABC, it should be noted that the cost measurement structure is projected on all areas of the entity, and not only on the area of production, registering, on the other hand, an expansion of the temporal perspective that thus covers the stages before and after the manufacture of the product, including within these considerations the stages of design, launch, monitoring, after-sales service, etc., of a product.
The ABC system constitutes, therefore, a system in a certain way "perpendicular" to traditional systems, and that arises from the philosophy inherent to the management of activities, instead of the management of costs, which is the orientation adopted by traditional accounting systems. This statement is not at all intended to invalidate conventional cost systems, but rather to show that activity-based systems significantly provide information reliability. In short, the aim is to achieve new forms in the conception and use of business information, more in line with the internal external characteristics of the company. "
4. Functions.
The accounting
According to what was expressed by Redondo (1989: 1), «The purpose of accounting is to supply, at precise or determined moments, reasoned information, based on technical records, of the operations carried out by a private entity. To obtain this purpose:
1. Registers, based on systems and technical procedures adopted, the diversity of operations that a certain entity may carry out.
1. Classify the registered operations, as a means to obtain their end.
2. Summarizes the information obtained, highlighting the most important events that occurred in the estate.
3. Interpret summaries in order to provide reasoned information.
Maurice Moonitz, in his work entitled The Basic Postulates for Accounting (1962), “affirms that the function of accounting is fivefold: a) measure the resources of entities; b) reflect property rights in relation to them; c) measure changes in both; d) the foregoing in relation to periods (and positions) and e) all expressed in monetary terms. But accounting still has several functions, in addition to providing the components of the financial statements: among those we can highlight its contribution to the development of modern ideas on participatory management, such as: better operating policies; the training and improvement of controls at high levels of the administration; clear delegations of authority;operating budgets from their inception to their administration and compliance at all levels of responsibility; cost awareness throughout the organization; more precise views on alternative costs at basic levels of operation, and even more, establishing better channels of information within the organization. Without the techniques provided by accounting to assist in the orderly direction and coordination of the intricate affairs of today's business enterprises, it can be said that the development and success of the lucrative operation of a modern business enterprise would be nearly impossible. "establishing better information conduits within the organization. Without the techniques provided by accounting to assist in the orderly direction and coordination of the intricate affairs of today's business enterprises, it can be said that the development and success of the lucrative operation of a modern business enterprise would be nearly impossible. "establishing better information conduits within the organization. Without the techniques provided by accounting to assist in the orderly direction and coordination of the intricate affairs of today's business enterprises, it can be said that the development and success of the lucrative operation of a modern business enterprise would be nearly impossible. "
Cost accounting.
For Polimeni and others (1990: 2). «The objectives of Managerial Accounting, set out by the NAA, are the following:
- Provide information required for planning, evaluation and control operations, safeguarding the organization's assets and establishing communications with interested parties outside the company Participate in strategic, tactical and operational decision-making, helping to coordinate the effects throughout the organization.
To achieve the above mentioned objectives, accountants must assume the following responsibilities: planning, evaluation and control, ensuring the accounting of resources and the presentation of reports for external use. "
According to Rayburn (1987: 13). “One of the goals of cost accounting is to convey financial information to management so that management can plan, evaluate and control resources. To achieve this goal, accountants must accumulate the cost elements to arrive at a base and be able to decide the selling price. Cost information, if it serves this primary purpose, is collected to perform inventory valuation. "
Accounting By Activities
For Brimson (1997: 26). “A simple and effective activity accounting system uses the following approaches:
1. Establish the activities of the company.
1. Establish the cost and performance of the activity. Performance is measured by cost per exit, activity execution time, and quality of exit.
2. Set the output of the activity. The measure of activity (output) is the factor by which the cost of a process varies most directly.
3. It allocates the cost of the activity to the cost objectives. Activity costs are charged to cost targets such as products, processes, and orders based on activity usage.
4. Establish short and long-term corporate objectives (key success factors). This requires knowledge and understanding of the existing cost structure, which indicates how effective operational activities are in delivering value to the customer.
5. Evaluate the effectiveness and efficiency of the activity. Knowing the key success factors (step 5) allows the company to examine what it is doing now (step 4) and the relationship of this action to the achievement of those objectives. Everything a company does - or does not do - is measured against short-term and long-term objectives. This is a useful formula on which to base the decision to continue carrying out an activity or, on the contrary, to restructure said activity. In addition, cost control is enhanced as superior methods of executing an activity are constantly being investigated, wasteful activities are located, and the cause of cost is determined. "
Activity Cost System (ABC)
For Brimson (1997: 40). «… Helps the company achieve excellence by making the following points a reality:
- Improves make-or-buy, estimation and pricing decisions that are based on a product cost that reflects the production process Facilitates the elimination of waste by highlighting cost activities Identifies cost sources through the determination of cost drivers. Links corporate strategy with operational decision-making, which allows management to capitalize on those activities that constitute the company's strengths and restructure those activities that contribute to achieving its objectives. It provides permanent feedback on the suitability of the strategies designed to achieve the established objectives, so that you can initiate, if necessary, corrective measures.Encourages continuous improvement and total quality control as planning and control are process-oriented Improves profitability by controlling total product lifecycle cost and performance monitoring Provides insight more in-depth knowledge of the least visible and fastest growing cost / overhead components Ensures the achievement of investment plans by monitoring investments through the activity-based accounting system in such a way that, when deviations are detected, corrective measures can be taken It enables continuous evaluation of the effectiveness of activities to identify potential investment opportunities.Incorporate externally set cost targets and performance targets and set specific targets at the activity level Eliminate many crises by treating problems rather than symptoms.
Also, it is important to note that the cost management system will only serve to identify where potential problems are located. indeed, it is what people do with the information available that ultimately determines whether cost management is effective or not.
Cost accounting.
Rayburn (1987: 12) notes. “The cost accountant works closely with a lot of people in other departments. Cost accounting reports should be specifically designed to meet the needs of users. Consequently, the cost accountant must understand user information requirements and be able to communicate effectively with non-accountant employees. the cost accountant frequently works with the following departments:
Treasury. The treasurer uses budgets and related accounting reports to predict cash and working capital needs, and the cost accountant provides this information. Cost accounting reports assist the treasurer in investing excessive temporary funds.
Financial Accounting. The cost accountant also works closely with the financial accountants, since cost information is generally built into the financial accounting system… The cost accountant provides a basis for determining profit when determining the cost of inventory.
Production. Cost accountants work closely with production personnel to calculate and report manufacturing costs. Cost accounting's mission is to measure the effectiveness of the production department in the allocation and transformation of materials into finished products.
Engineering. The cost accountant may be asked to prepare cost estimates for a new product so that management can decide whether or not it should be manufactured. Engineering personnel should sample materials and conduct time and displacement studies to establish standards that determine the quality and quantity of material that should be used in the manufacture of a product, and the direct and indirect man-hours required to produce each unit. With this, the cost accountant and engineer translate these product specifications into estimated material, labor, and overhead costs.
Marketing. The marketing department makes sales predictions before preparing a production plan for a particular product. Cost estimates provided to the marketing department are used to establish pricing and sales policy. Although it is true that the competition, supply, demand and the technological level mainly determine the price that can be demanded, the manufacturing costs, the marketing and administrative costs cannot be ignored.
Personal. The personnel department must hire qualified personnel with the specific powers required. The functions of the personnel department include interviewing candidates, assessing their qualities in relation to the needs of the company and hiring employees. Cost accounting uses the salaries and payment methods supplied by the personnel department to the payroll department to calculate the payments to be made. Adequate records of labor should be kept for both legal purposes and cost analysis.
Cost accountants collect information and analyze cost data in order to meet the information needs of other departments. Cost accounting is also responsible for the accumulation of all costs in the manufacture of goods or provision of services. This information is necessary not only for profit determination and inventory valuation, but also to help management plan and make decisions about how best to run the business. The cost accountant, as part of his job, interprets the results, reports back to management, and provides analysis to facilitate decision-making. "
5. Accounting comparisons.
Costs vs. Financial
Rayburn manifests (1987: 13). «Financial accounting is transformed into reports, to external parties, which reflect the state of assets, liabilities and net worth: the results of operations; changes in net worth, and changes in the origin and use of funds during an accounting period. Creditors, current owners, potential owners, employees, and the public use financial accounting reports to make decisions. Cost information should be accumulated for external financial accounting purposes and for internal company management. Cost accounting uses quantitative methods to accumulate, classify, and interpret information regarding the cost of material, labor, and other manufacturing and marketing costs.One of the goals of cost accounting is to convey financial information to management so that management can plan, evaluate, and control resources. To achieve this goal, cost accountants must accumulate the cost elements to arrive at a base and be able to decide the selling price. Information on costs should also serve this main objective, it is collected to carry out the inventory valuation.
One of the main objectives of financial accounting is the determination of profits; And, to calculate profits, financial accountants must use the cost of inventory that the cost accountant has provided. Consequently, cost accounting represents an important source for financial accounting, providing you with cost information to determine the financial position and profits of the business. Information from cost accounting, in an ideal model, is integrated into financial accounting and the information system. However, separate cost information can be collected as statistical information.
By activities vs. Traditional costs.
For Brimson (1997: 30). “Activity-based accounting advocates misuse of resources generally associated with equitable allocation of resources. This gives managers practicing activity-based management an additional incentive to stay competitive in operations through the cost-effective identification and elimination of waste drivers on an ongoing basis.
It should be noted that the total cost of the department is the same under the traditional approach (cost component) as under the activity accounting approach. The difference is that, under traditional cost accounting, costs are accumulated and controlled, in total, by cost category for each organizational unit, while in activity accounting, costs are associated with what the organization (unit of work) does. "
It should be emphasized in a fundamental way that while in traditional costs, indirect costs (variable and fixed) are assigned to products based on criteria such as: man-hours, machine-hours or prime cost, thus originating the subsidy of processed products. In accounting by activities, fully identified expenses are charged to the causative product, thus resulting in a more precise product cost. We have, for example, reprocessing, idle labor, depreciation and others, receive a different handling, according to the system in use.
Another important difference occurs in the records of expenses that accumulate, such as those of research and development, since while in traditional costs products produced in the month are charged, in activity accounting they are capitalized to be amortized with charge to the product that corresponds to it in its life cycle.
6. Bibliography
ALVAREZ LOPEZ, J., AMAT i SALAS, J., AMAT i SALAS, O., BALADA ORTEGA, T., BLANCO IBARRA, F., CASTELLO TALIANI, E., LIZCANO ALVAREZ, J. and RIPOLL FELIU, V.. (nineteen ninety six). Advanced Management Accounting: Planning, control and practical experiences, Spain, McGraw-Hill / Interamericana de España, 448 pp.
BRIMSON, JA. (nineteen ninety five). Accounting by Activities, Mexico, Alfaomega Grupo Editor., 1997. 256 pp. Original title: Activity Accounting, Spain, Marcombo.
CORRALES, B. (1995). Cost System Model for service companies based on Activity Costing. Case: Gomaca. Unpublished degree work, National Open University, Local Center Carabobo.
GERTZ, MF, (1996). Origin and Evolution of Accounting: Historical Essay, 5th ed., Mexico, Editorial Trillas, 159 pp.
KOHLER, EL (1979) Dictionary for Accountants, Mexico, Uteha, 717 pp. Original title: A Dictionary for Accountants, USA, (1970). Translated and supplemented by: R. Cárdenas C.
LORINO, P.. (1995). The control of Strategic Management: Management by activities, Mexico, Alfaomega Grupo Editor, 194 pp. Original title: Le Controle de Gestion Strategique: La Gestion par les Activites, Spain, Marcombo, (1993). Translator: Jaime Gavaldá Posiello.
POLIMENI, RS, FABOZZI, FJ and ADELBERG, AH (1986). Cost Accounting: Concepts and applications for managerial decision making. 2nd. ed., Mexico, McGraw Hill / Interamericana de México, 871 pp. Original title: Cost Accounting: Concepts and applications for managerial decision making. USA, McGraw Hill Inc. (1986). Translated from the 3rd ed. in English by William Escobar, Diego Delgadillo, Gonzalo Sinisterra and Harvey Henao.
RAYBURN, LG (1987) Cost Accounting (Vol. 1-2), Spain, Ediciones Centrum Técnicas y Científicas, 944 pp. Original title: Principles of Cost Accounting: Managerial applications, USA, (1986) Translated from 3rd ed. by: Juan Mustavas Soler.
REDONDO, A. (1989). General Accounting Practical Course. 11a. ed., Venezuela, Venezuelan Accounting Center, 1018 pp.
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