Tropical storms
Tropical storms transport and distribute the global heat emanating from the oceans. These storms have different names depending on the region of the planet where they occur. For example, in the Atlantic Ocean they are called hurricanes, in the Indian Ocean cyclones and in the Pacific Typhoons. The mechanism that causes these storms is the same in all oceans. These types of storms are formed in oceanic regions where the surface of the water reaches warm temperatures of at least twenty-seven degrees Celsius, especially at the end of summer.
The deviation of these storms is a consequence of the rotational movement of the planet that forms a vortex and force majeure near the equator. For this reason, tropical storms generally originate in areas more than 5 degrees from the equator, and from there they move towards both poles of the planet in the form of eddies. Each tropical storm is initially formed from a small and harmless vortex that maintains a zone of low pressure in the center and, regularly 10% of these phenomena turn into true storms that strongly affect the maritime and terrestrial atmospheric conditions of the planet.
Heat and intense solar radiation increase the evaporation rates of the water, and this excessive humidity forms huge towers of rain-laden clouds. Masses of hot air rise causing a decrease in air pressure on the surface of the oceans. And to equalize this pressure difference, new air is sucked in from the outside to the inside of the storm zone, which also rises subsequently. Thus, the airflow within the central low-pressure zone could be expected to mitigate the effects of the storm, but the heat on the sea surface in these regions constantly restores and supplies the energy required for the formation of clouds of storm.
The planet's rotation spins the storm system and causes eddies. In this sense, the faster the rise of the hot air, the higher the wind speed and the stronger the rotation of the whirlpool. Additionally, cloud formation releases energy in the form of heat, which makes the storm process sustainable. The high speed of the wind as a result of the storm causes movements in the oceans. And these ocean movements bring fresh water to the surface, which at some point stops the storm, due to the decrease in heat energy. For this reason, tropical maritime storms always leave a cool environment behind them, thus preventing another storm from passing the same path, since storms avoid fresh air.
Oceans and Storms
Storms form in the oceans. Currently, more than 60% of the earth's surface is covered by water, and 97% is seawater. All the oceans communicate and form a great planetary sea. In the northern hemisphere of the planet are the enormous masses of territory belonging to North America, Europe and Asia where the land surface is equivalent to 39% and the oceans occupy 61%, which means 155 million square kilometers of sea. On the other hand, in the southern hemisphere the situation is very different, that is, continents such as South America, Africa, Australia and Antarctica comprise only 19% of the earth's surface, and the oceans occupy 81%, which means 207 million square kilometers of sea in the southern hemisphere.
Forty percent of the earth's surface is located in zones of tropical climates, between the tropics of the northern and southern hemispheres. The heat and the intense tropical solar radiation cause high levels of evaporation, especially on the water of the oceans, which is fundamental for the balance between heat and water on the planet. Oceans differ considerably in terms of their surface area and the assimilation of rivers that flow into them. The Atlantic Ocean is mainly surrounded by flat territories divided by huge rivers like the Amazon, Mississippi, Congo, Niger and Nile that flow into this ocean. The Indian Ocean is surrounded by small territories, some of which are within the drought belt, however rivers such as the Zambezi and the Ganges flow into this ocean.The Pacific Ocean is surrounded by mountain ranges, and receives less water from rivers such as the Colorado, Columbia, Amur and the Yangtze mainly. In a large part of the maritime regions, the main currents are influenced by local winds that transport huge volumes of water from North to South and from East to West on the planet. In this way large amounts of heat energy are distributed in the water. In other words, the oceans not only store heat, they also transport and distribute it. Water is a better medium for storing heat than air. This heat when moving makes up the temperate climates of the planet.the main currents are influenced by local winds that transport huge volumes of water from North to South and from East to West on the planet. In this way large amounts of heat energy are distributed in the water. In other words, the oceans not only store heat, they also transport and distribute it. Water is a better medium for storing heat than air. This heat when moving forms the temperate climates of the planet.the main currents are influenced by local winds that transport huge volumes of water from North to South and from East to West on the planet. In this way large amounts of heat energy are distributed in the water. In other words, the oceans not only store heat, they also transport and distribute it. Water is a better medium for storing heat than air. This heat when moving forms the temperate climates of the planet.This heat when moving makes up the temperate climates of the planet.This heat when moving makes up the temperate climates of the planet.
One of the main characteristics of the Atlantic Ocean is the flow of heat energy to the north, from both hemispheres of the planet. About 1 billion megawatts of heat energy are transferred through this ocean to western and northern Europe. Without this phenomenon, winter in Central Europe would be similar to that in Arctic regions. In the northern region of the planet, between Greenland and Norway, the waters of the Atlantic cool considerably, and become denser and heavier due to cooling. In the Greenland Sea, this heavy and dense water sinks to depths of up to 2,000 meters, in columns of only 15 km. wide, at a rate of up to 17 million cubic meters of water per second, carrying with it dissolved carbon dioxide (CO2). In this sense,The "Greenhouse Effect" on the planet has direct consequences, because it promotes global warming that melts a greater amount of polar ice and, in this way, the salt in seawater is reduced, making it lighter, thus avoiding its necessary sinking for the cycle vital and the balance of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the planet's atmosphere.
Phenomenon "El Niño"
"El Niño" clearly shows us the consequences of the interrelation between oceans and atmosphere in the formation of climatic events. At irregular intervals, but always around Christmas time, a warm ocean current caused by exchange between high and low pressure zones in the western Pacific pushes the nutrient-rich Humbolt Current away from the west coast of South America. That is, streams of warm water, with a temperature around 28 ° C and poor in nutrients (plankton), remain on the fresh streams rich in nutrients, which have a temperature of approximately 20 ° C.
In this way, the absence of nutrients reduces the production of plankton and, as a result, the fish move away to better regions where plankton exists, affecting the economy of fishing fleets, and leading to the death of birds, seals and other marine animals that live of the fish. But this is not all, the climate in the regions affected by “El Niño” is drastically altered. And the levels of pluvial precipitation may decrease due to the deviation in rainfall, or increase notably due to atmospheric instability caused by “El Niño”.
For example, in the Galapagos Islands where 460 mm are normally received. of annual rainfall, the “El Niño” phenomenon (1982-1983) caused severe flooding with a rainfall of 3,225 mm. And its effects were not only felt in Peru and Ecuador, but also in Central America and Australia. The “El Niño” phenomenon can be described as a recurring natural climatic cycle that generally occurs every three to eight years, always around Christmas time for more than 400 years according to scientists.
Greenhouse effect
The exchange of gases between the oceans and the atmosphere is presented as an important global climatic factor. Carbon dioxide (CO2), also called “greenhouse gas”, is particularly significant in this regard. Even though this gas is part of only 0.035% of the atmosphere, its presence in the atmosphere increases every day, which negatively affects the development of climate and living conditions on the planet.
The special characteristic of this gas is that it is found in seawater in three different forms: 1.- As dissolved carbon dioxide gas (CO2). 2.- As hydrogen carbonate (HCO3). 3.- As carbonate (CO3). When the concentration of CO2 is the same in the water of the oceans and in the air, then the exchange process would be in balance. However, a part of the CO2 in the water becomes HCO3 and CO3. In this way, seawater has a much greater capacity than the atmosphere to store CO2.
The colder the seawater, the greater the amount of CO2 dissolved in it. The oceans in tropical and subtropical regions discharge CO2 into the atmosphere, while large amounts of CO2 (“greenhouse gas”) are found in solution in the polar oceans. In maritime areas where deep waters are formed, as well as in the Arctic oceans, CO2 is separated from the atmosphere by sinking in sea currents, and years later it returns with currents to the surface to increase the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere.
On the other hand, marine algae during the photosynthesis process consume CO2 dissolved in seawater. However, in oceans where there is a large amount of algae, the consumption of the algae to feed marine fauna is much slower than the reproduction and growth of these algae. In this way, algae are forced to consume all the nutrients in the water, such as nitrates and phosphates, and without sufficient nutrients they cannot continue to proliferate, so they die and sink to the bottom of the oceans, together with CO2. found in your cells, which will eventually be captured by the air, thus increasing the amount of CO2 circulating in the atmosphere.
Furthermore, the calcareous and coral layers in the oceans produce CO2 by chemical reaction, where two molecules of HCO3 are transformed into CO3, water (H2O) and CO2. In this way, the calcareous layers and coral reefs increase the amount of CO2 in the oceans, which is finally expelled into the atmosphere. Recent research shows that coral reefs produce four times more CO2 than algae. Coral reefs are found in shallow warm tropical waters, and CO2 does not dissolve easily in warm waters, causing CO2 to be expelled into the atmosphere more quickly.
Global warming, due to the "Greenhouse Effect", is closely related to the inability of the oceans to store the surplus CO2 produced in our "technologically advanced" society.
Global warming
The interrelation of the processes for the CO2 balance between the oceans and the global climate is complex. Global warming caused by the "Greenhouse Effect" means that the oceans' ability to store CO2 in solution is limited. And this is even more serious when the sea water warms up, and its salt content decreases due to the melting of the glaciers. The water becomes too warm and too light, which prevents its sinking together with CO2 towards the depths of the oceans. Global warming also increases the stability of surface water, which prevents the transport of marine nutrients to deeper waters, thus reducing the production of algae that capture CO2, and the amount of fish that feed on the algae. Likewise,the increase in temperature in the waters of the oceans favors the development of hurricanes.
The above clearly shows how important and delicate the CO2 balance is in climatic conditions for life on the planet. However, through motor vehicles and industrial processes that generate enormous amounts of CO2, we continue to contribute to the inadequate balance of CO2 in the atmosphere, which sooner or later negatively affects our lives. Every day the use of clean energy is more necessary in our society.
Carbon Capture
Tropical regions offer the possibility to establish and manage grasslands and forest plantations in order to sell rights for the carbon fixed in the biomass produced. In other words, carbon credits. The capture of atmospheric carbon and its economic value depends mainly on the productivity in forest plantations and grasslands, and the price of carbon. It is possible to establish plantations in lands with high productive potential, which means more than 25 m3 / ha / year of wood. And to minimize the amount of carbon released, agricultural land must be reforested. It is estimated that in southeastern Mexico the reforestation of grasslands with high productivity eucalyptus (40 m3 / ha / year) generates a net capture of CO2 between 320 and 610 tons per hectare in a period of seven years,which in the international carbon market has a value of US $ 0.90 to US $ 2.10 per ton (Chicago Climate Exchange) and from € 6.40 to € 19.70 Euros per ton (European Climate Exchange Carbon) (June 2005).
To offset the CO2 emissions generated by deforestation in southeastern Mexico, it is necessary to establish between 27,000 and 50,000 hectares of fast-growing plantations annually. Reforestation companies should consider the sale of carbon credits as a complementary product in their projects. A productive project can hardly be based solely on carbon capture. When a good price is obtained for the carbon fixed in the biomass of the plantation, its financial impact is considerable but should not be decisive for the project. It is feasible to think that a good part of the reforestation costs can be financed through the sale of carbon credits (Petteri Seppänen).
Carbon Credit Market
The name “carbon credits” has been given to the set of instruments that can be generated by various activities in the reduction of CO2 emissions.
There are several types of carbon credits, depending on the way in which they were generated:
- ƒCertificates of Emission Reductions (CERs) ƒAnnually Allocated Amounts (AAUs) ƒEmission Reduction Units (ERUs) ƒEmission Removal Units (RMUs)
Emission Reduction Certificates (CER).- The countries (Annex One) that invest in projects under the Clean Development Mechanism can obtain Emission Reduction Certificates for an amount equivalent to the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) that is it stopped emitting into the atmosphere as a result of the project. For this, the project must comply with the requirements established by the Executive Council of the Clean Development Mechanism.
Annually Assigned Amounts (AAU).- Corresponds to the total amount of “greenhouse gas” emissions that a country is allowed to emit into the atmosphere during the first commitment period (2008-2012) of the Kyoto Protocol. Each country divides and allocates the amount of emissions to companies located in its territory as a limit per company.
Emission Reduction Units (ERU).- Corresponds to a specific amount of “greenhouse gas” emissions that were no longer emitted by the execution of a joint implementation project.
Emission Removal Units (RMU).- Corresponds to credits obtained by a country during carbon capture projects. These units or credits can be obtained only by countries in Annex One of the Kyoto Protocol, and can also be obtained in joint implementation projects. Emission Removal Units can only be used by the countries within the commitment period during which they were generated, and are to meet their emission reduction commitments. These credits cannot be considered in subsequent commitment periods.
Carbon Credit Transactions
Carbon credit transactions can consist of a simple purchase-sale of a specific amount of bonds, to a purchase-sale structure with various options. Some of the options are as follows:
- ƒSpot purchases: the price of the bond and the amount of bonds are agreed on the date of the purchase-sale agreement, but the delivery and payment of the bond are made at a near future date. It can be considered that the purchase and sale is at the moment, even when a few days pass between payment and delivery. This is done to ensure a mutually agreeable price and to reduce the risk that the bond will not sell in the future.
- ƒFuture delivery contracts: the purchase and sale of a specific amount of bonds is agreed at the current market price, but the payment and delivery will be made on future dates, generally according to a delivery schedule.
- ƒ Options: the parties buy or sell the option, that is, the right to decide whether the sale will take place or not, on the date and at the agreed price. In this way, the buyer has the right to buy the bonds offered by the seller, but not the obligation to buy them once the deadline date has arrived. The conditions of price, quantity and delivery date of the bonds are agreed on the day the contract is drawn up, and the deadline for the buyer to maintain his purchase right is also agreed. In this case the seller is waiting and it depends on the buyer's decision, but if the sale is made, then the buyer will have to pay the seller an additional amount called Premium.
Carbon Bonds Value
All purchase and sale transactions in carbon trading are governed by a contract between the buyer and the seller. In other words, there is no “official value” on the price of a ton of CO2 reduced or not emitted. And even though some multilateral agencies have established prices for the reduction of emissions in projects financed by themselves, as for example until 2005 the World Bank used a price of US $ 5 per ton of CO2 equivalent not emitted, the price of the ton of CO2 is subject to the supply and demand of carbon credits in the market. There are different schemes for trading carbon credits, and different places in the world where they can be bought and sold. In this way, the prices are different for each ton of CO2.
For example:
- ƒChicago Climate Exchange: in operation since December 2003; the price has fluctuated from $ 0.90 to $ 2.10 dollars per ton of CO2 (data as of June 2005).ƒEuropean Climate Exchange Carbon: in operation since April 2005; the price has fluctuated between $ 6.40 and $ 19.70 euros per ton of CO2 (data as of June 2005).
Carbon Dioxide Absorption
Forest ecosystems can absorb significant amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2), the main greenhouse gas (GHG). Recently, there has been considerable interest in increasing the carbon content of terrestrial vegetation through forest conservation, reforestation, agroforestry, grasslands and other soil management methods. A large number of studies have shown the enormous potential that forests and agricultural ecosystems have to store carbon.
The carbon cycle in vegetation begins with the fixation of CO2 through photosynthesis processes carried out by plants and microorganisms. In these processes, catalyzed by solar energy, CO2 and water react to form carbohydrates and release oxygen into the atmosphere. A part of these carbohydrates are consumed directly to supply energy to the plant.
On the other hand, CO2 is released through the leaves, branches and roots of plants as a product of this process. Another part of the carbohydrates are consumed by animals, which also breathe and release CO2. Plants and animals that die are finally decomposed by macro and micro-organisms, which results in the carbon in their tissues oxidizing into CO2 and returning to the atmosphere (Schimel 1995 and Smith et al. 1993).
Carbon fixation by bacteria and animals also contributes to reducing the amount of carbon dioxide, although quantitatively it is less important than carbon fixation in plants. When organisms die, they are compressed by sedimentation and undergo a series of chemical changes that form peat, then brown or brown coal, and finally coal. CO2 is considered to be captured when it is part of a plant or soil structure, and until it is released into the atmosphere.
At the moment of its release, either by decomposition of organic matter and / or by burning biomass, CO2 flows to return to the carbon cycle. Mexico has very favorable natural conditions to mitigate negative actions in the area of natural resources, because a large part of the earth's surface is still covered with jungles and forests that must be conserved, reforested and expanded.
Coffee Plantations Capture and Transform Carbon
According to a study presented by researchers from the Universidad Veracruzana. Including coffee plantations in the list of ecosystems that naturally capture and transform carbon dioxide (CO2), which is the main pollutant in the atmosphere and the cause of climate change, would allow many coffee growers to receive economic bonuses from industrialized countries ("carbon credits ”) For conserving their farms.
This proposal, when accepted, would give added ecological value to this crop and would generate an alternative source of economic resources for Veracruz peasants who have not been able to recover from the fall in aromatic prices that slowed their development for 20 years, and which has driven a massive phenomenon of migration to the United States.
The group of researchers from the Applied Biotechnology Laboratory (Labioteca) argues in the study that if 88% of coffee plantations coexist with trees and species of the mesophilic mountain forest, which is the agro-ecosystem that captures the most CO2 in the atmosphere, coffee plantations they should be included as sites to be conserved and, therefore, they would be subject to payment for environmental services.
This alternative is especially valuable for the State of Veracruz if it is considered that there are 152 thousand fragmented hectares of coffee growing area, managed by more than 67 thousand producers, and that 94% of them cultivate less than five hectares, according to Gustavo's study Ortiz Ceballos.
Lázaro Sánchez, director of the Labioteca, explained that payment for environmental services is becoming a global mechanism to try to remedy environmental damage caused by CO2 emissions, by allowing industrialized countries to finance the conservation of forests and ecosystems that purify the environment. environment, and that they capture this greenhouse gas that, among other things, is causing global warming and the severe climatic changes already evident.
He explained that the accumulation of CO2 in the atmosphere is due to the fact that old-growth forests, as well as vegetation in general and the oceans that work together as sinks or reserves of carbon dioxide, do not manage to capture the increasing amounts of polluting CO2 that are emitted daily by the combustion processes necessary in an increasingly industrialized world.
Hence, the countries have identified as a line of action the mitigation of the increase in this CO2 gas, which is only possible in two ways: by stopping industrial activities (which affects economic interests) or by increasing the number of sinks or ecosystems that, By transforming carbon dioxide into wood through photosynthesis, or into other compounds, they support this work.
The fact is that forests and other ecosystems act as “sequestrants” or “captors” of carbon dioxide, so the payment of environmental services encourages countries with more emissions of this pollutant (industrialized or developed), to pay for conservation and reforestation in developing countries to balance CO2 emission and capture.
To do this, he said, certificates called “carbon credits” have been created, which allow industrialized countries to comply with their obligation to mitigate the amount of greenhouse gases according to international parameters, and developing countries use this resource economic allows them to promote reforestation, research and conservation.
Of the projects developed up to 2003 in Latin America in accordance with international pollutant mitigation agreements, the main buyers of carbon credits were: the World Bank's Prototype Carbon Fund; Dutch funds and mixed funds of companies such as MGM International and Eco-energy international, as confirmed by a 2004 study by the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC).
In the central region of Veracruz, a coffee producer, from the inter-municipal perspective, it is necessary to promote a program that proposes to consider coffee plantations with shade for carbon capture that includes not only environmental justification, but also its legal dimension, they point out. Rosario Pineda López, Gustavo Ortiz and Lázaro Sánchez, authors of the study.
In addition, they propose to design an instrument that allows to monitor and geographically evaluate ecosystems and their contribution to the capture and storage of CO2 at the local and regional level, to prioritize payment actions, management and conservation of ecosystems, within a development perspective regional.
Among other things, the authors highlighted the need to sensitize municipal authorities about the need to promote the maintenance of coffee plantations with diversified shade as providers of local environmental services, and propose their consideration as part of the Municipal Development Plan, as well as the municipal environmental regulations, with the understanding that a large part of the region's economy is based on coffee growing.
Kyoto Protocol, Environment and Market
Protecting the environment is everyone's job: governments, companies and individuals. To this end, initiatives to protect the planet from the "greenhouse effect" are part of the new international rules, from the Convention on Climate Change to the Kyoto Protocol and the rules of the European Union to help a healthier world. The characteristic note of the Kyoto mechanisms is their status as "market mechanisms", which opens up an opportunity to defend the planet and at the same time do business through carbon credits.
Actions are not supported by sanctions and controls, but by mutual exchange convenient for the general benefit. However, the construction of this new world market in which the unit of exchange is Carbon, has led to the design of complex and sophisticated rules and regulations.
In order to meet their commitments, developed countries must reduce their 1990 emissions by a certain percentage for each of them. In the European Union it is frequently mentioned as being the "spearhead" in the Carbon market.
The mandatory reductions are 5%, but there are countries that not only have not reduced but have exceeded the limits for authorized emissions by around 40% and, consequently, they must promote strong measures to reduce emissions of “greenhouse gases. greenhouse effect ”and to acquire emission rights. Otherwise, their companies will have to face fines for each ton of CO2 that exceeds the limits.
Greenhouse Gases are Six
- ƒCarbon Dioxide (CO2) ƒMethane (CH4) ƒNitrous Oxide (N2O) ƒHydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) ƒPerfluorocarbons (PFCs) ƒSulfur Hexafluoride (SF6)
Each of these gases has a certain equivalence to CO2 that acts as a "unit of account." Among the most common, in addition to CO2, are Methane, produced by organic decomposition of solid waste and water with a value of 21 in emissions; and Nitrous oxide, produced by internal combustion in engines, mainly in transport, with a value of 290 in emissions. Public and private regulations, financing opportunities for clean projects, as well as internal regulations of the countries and those of the United Nations are updated frequently.
This makes information in this regard even more necessary, be it national and international, in order to meet the requirements for projects that must have a highly specialized and updated approach to be able to obtain a satisfactory response from those who participate in this type of market..
In this sense, it is possible to request information from government entities in charge of the environment and ecology, in order to facilitate the task of consulting and managing environmental and forestry projects, detecting investment opportunities, and designing mechanisms that make the Carbon Market accessible to the participants in the countries, whether they are agricultural producers, private companies and municipalities who wish to add profitability to their projects by benefiting from the global exchange promoted by the Kyoto Protocol.
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Emissions
Data based on information received from the 34 Annex I Parties that submitted their first national communications on or before December 11, 1997, compiled by the secretariat in various documents (A / AC.237 / 81; FCCC / CP /1996/12/Add.2 and FCCC / SB / 1997/6). Some of the submissions included data on CO2 emissions by sources and removals by sinks originating from land use change and forestry, but these data were not included because the information was presented in different ways.
Effect of Tree Cover
The tree cover, in addition to capturing atmospheric CO2, provides comfort for the livestock. Research in tropical regions indicates that cattle increase their production and reproduction when they can be sheltered in the shade. In conditions of grazing without shade, the cattle suffer heat stress and their production decreases, as well as the reproduction rates and feed intake. (Drugociu et al. 1977, Hahn 1999).
Studies carried out with artificial shade show that animals under shade increase their production when compared to those that were without shade (Bennett et al. 1985, Pagot
1993, Paul et al. 1999). On the one hand, it is evident that a high tree cover in pastures reduces pasture production and animal load, but on the other hand, a high tree cover contributes to reducing heat stress and increasing animal production and reproduction (Souza de Abreu et al. 2000). This research was carried out as part of the FRAGMENT project (“Developing Methods and Models for Assessing the Impacts of Trees on Farm Productivity and Regional Biodiversity in Fragmented Landscapes”), funded by the European Community Fifth Framework Program (INCO-Dev ICA4-CT-2001 -10099). The objective of the study was to evaluate the effect of low and high tree covers in pastures on the behavior of cattle (grazing, browsing,rumination and rest) in dual-purpose systems under grazing on farms in Nicaragua.
The work was carried out in the Bulbul river basin in the Matiguás municipality, Matagalpa, Nicaragua (85 ° 27'Norte and 12 ° 50'West). At an altitude between 200 and 400 meters above sea level, with annual rainfall between 1200 and 1800 mm., And more or less uniform rainfall distribution between May and December. The average annual temperature of 27 ºC (Guerrero and Soriano 1992). The predominant breed of cattle in the region is the product of the cross between Brahman and Brown Swiss breeds. The main grass species are star grass (Cynodon nlemfuensis), jaragua (Hyparrhenia rufa), Brachiaria brizantha, guinea (Panicum maximun) and ratana (Ischaemun inducum). In a large percentage of the paddocks there are scattered trees, the product of natural regeneration. The main tree species are: C. alliodora,black wood (Gliricidia sepium), G. ulmifolia, E. cyclocarpum, jenízaro (S. saman) and coyote (Paltmysicum peliostachyum). In addition to grass, animals consume the fruits that fall from trees, mainly G. ulmifolia and E. cyclocarpum.
15 cattle farms were selected from a database of 100 that the GEF-silvopastoril project has in the Matiguás area. The criteria used for their selection were the following:
- ƒDispersion of the trees in the pastures.ƒPresence of different ranges of tree cover in the paddocks.ƒSimilar pasture species and area (stocking) between paddocks.ƒAnimal breeds: crossing of Brahman and Brown Swiss (predominant in the area).ƒGrass grazing for at least eight hours a day.ƒ The physiological status of the animals (at least 10 cows in production).ƒ The producer's willingness to cooperate.
Satellite images were used (natural panchromatic color image from QuickBird 2003), from which the maps of each farm were obtained. Based on these maps, a distinction was made between land use systems (monoculture pastures, grass with low and high tree cover, tacotales, primary forests, secondary forests and trees for living fences). The information was verified through visits to each farm and observation of each polygon of the land use samples. In this way, three farms were selected for each type of tree cover (low and high) to study the effect of the cover on the behavior and milk production of the cows. The low coverage ranges were from 0% to 7% and the high coverage ranges from 22% to 30%. And in each farm a low coverage paddock and a high one were selected,whose size varied from 3.0 to 4.5 ha.
Three cows in production were selected on each farm to study the effect of tree cover levels on animal behavior during the dry season (February to April). The breed of the cows consisted of Brahman-Brown Swiss crosses, and the selected animals were in good health in the third and fourth lactation, and between the third and fifth months of lactation. In the dry season, a continuous grazing system was established with an animal load of 0.6 animal units (1 animal unit = 400 kg of live weight).
The size of the paddock varied between farms and, to maintain a fixed animal load, dry cows were used in addition to the animals selected for the study. On a daily basis, the animals entered the paddock at 8:00 a.m. after milking and left at 5:00 p.m., remaining in pens until the next day. The cows were not given concentrated feed during the study, but they did have free access to water.
The animals had an adaptation period of 12 days in each paddock to establish the test. And the behavior data of the animals in grazing (grass consumption), browsing (consumption of leaves and tender branches of trees and shrubs), rumination and rest (inactivity) were taken during the following three consecutive days, using the visual technique that It consisted of observing and making notes on the activities carried out by the animals from 8:00 a.m. to 4:00 p.m. As additional information, the following were recorded: 1) The position of the cow (lying down or standing). 2) Its permanence in the shade or in full sun. 3) Final production in each of the studios. 4) The rectal temperature of the animals. 5) The ambient temperature. Rectal temperature was measured in the morning at 10:00 a.m. and in the afternoon at 4:00 p.m.00 hours in each cow. Milk production was measured in each cow during the morning milking. The data were analyzed taking the farms as a block and the animals as a replica in each study, and the measurement hours as a sub-plot.
The time dedicated to grazing was 4.7% higher in high tree cover compared to low. The time devoted to rumination and rest was greater in animals within paddocks with low tree cover. Regarding browsing in the pastures, there were no differences between high and low tree cover. Casasola (2000) found that in sites with greater tree cover, consumptions rose to 3.7%, compared to 1.3% and 2.0% in places with less tree cover. Robinson (1983) indicates that the presence of trees in extensive production systems has a positive effect because the hours in which cattle graze are increased. In this sense, it was found that cattle spent more time grazing in the afternoon than in the morning. And this leads to differences in the time spent on rumination and rest.
The results showed that the tree cover had a direct influence on the rectal temperature of the cows. Rectal temperature was higher in low tree cover (38.7 ° C) than in high tree cover (38.3 ° C), which indicates that the shade of the trees in the paddocks relieves heat stress in animals, which increases the voluntary consumption of dry matter. On the other hand, Souza de Abreu et al. (2000) found that in paddocks with C. nlemfluensis and Brachiaria radicans forage, and shade of various trees, voluntary forage consumption in Jersey cows increased from 2.2% to 2.5% of the live weight of the animal, compared to paddocks without shade. These changes were explained by the reduction in heat stress of the cows in pastures with trees.Cows grazing in gatehouses with high tree cover had on average 29% more milk production than cows in pastures with low tree cover. Other research by Souza et al. (2000), showed that cows in silvopastoral systems produced 15% more milk than those grazing in full sun. Likewise, the study by Restrepo (2001) shows an increase between 2% and 5% in the live weight of cattle grazing in paddocks with high tree cover, when compared to cattle in paddocks with low tree cover.the study by Restrepo (2001) shows an increase between 2% and 5% in the live weight of cattle grazing in pastures with high tree cover, when compared to cattle in pastures with low tree cover.the study by Restrepo (2001) shows an increase between 2% and 5% in the live weight of cattle grazing in pastures with high tree cover, when compared to cattle in pastures with low tree cover.
In pastures with low tree cover, cattle spend more time rumination and rest, which negatively influences milk and meat production. The tree cover in pastures contributes to reducing rectal temperature in cattle, which reduces heat stress in cattle. Reducing heat stress increases forage consumption and meat and milk production.
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