Instructional design of online training

The essential function of learning in human beings is adaptive. Ruiz-Vargas affirms that: "learning and memory systems are the biological response to the adaptive demands of an extraordinarily variable and unpredictable environment."

instructional-design-training-online

David Oakley proposes different levels of response of living beings to the variability of the environment. At the first level are the most elementary species with practically invariable environments; the basis of his answer lies in phylogenetic memory. At the second level, with more complex species, the response to the variability of the environment is articulated by means of variable epigenesis with different degrees of openness. Epigenesis, as described by Oakley: "involves the specification of the genetic endowment, not only of the probable range of environmental conditions, but also of the type of evolutionary trajectory with which to effectively cope with each of them." That is, an open adaptation, during a period (imprint) to receive environmental information and complete the development and subsequent adaptive closure.At the third level, learning and memory remain open throughout the life of the individual, although it is not transferred phylogenetically, limiting each being to its life cycle. Finally Oakley points out that a fourth or cultural level is characteristic of human beings; At this level, learning and information, the basis of knowledge, is transmitted to the following generations. Through this process we are able to adapt and survive in very different environments: Thus, in humans, the generation of adaptive behavior (knowledge) manifests itself with maximum flexibility and power, capable thanks to the enculturation mechanisms to accumulate knowledge beyond of the genetic transmission or biographical history of each individual.although it is not transferred phylogenetically, limiting each being to its life cycle. Finally Oakley points out that a fourth or cultural level is characteristic of human beings; At this level, learning and information, the basis of knowledge, is transmitted to the following generations. Through this process we are able to adapt and survive in very different environments: Thus, in humans, the generation of adaptive behavior (knowledge) manifests itself with maximum flexibility and power, capable thanks to the enculturation mechanisms to accumulate knowledge beyond of the genetic transmission or biographical history of each individual.although it is not transferred phylogenetically, limiting each being to its life cycle. Finally Oakley points out that a fourth or cultural level is characteristic of human beings; At this level, learning and information, the basis of knowledge, is transmitted to the following generations. Through this process we are able to adapt and survive in very different environments: Thus, in humans, the generation of adaptive behavior (knowledge) manifests itself with maximum flexibility and power, capable thanks to the enculturation mechanisms to accumulate knowledge beyond of the genetic transmission or biographical history of each individual.At this level, learning and information, the basis of knowledge, is transmitted to the following generations. Through this process we are able to adapt and survive in very different environments: Thus, in humans, the generation of adaptive behavior (knowledge) manifests itself with maximum flexibility and power, capable thanks to the enculturation mechanisms to accumulate knowledge beyond of the genetic transmission or biographical history of each individual.At this level, learning and information, the basis of knowledge, is transmitted to the following generations. Through this process we are able to adapt and survive in very different environments: Thus, in humans, the generation of adaptive behavior (knowledge) manifests itself with maximum flexibility and power, capable thanks to the enculturation mechanisms to accumulate knowledge beyond of the genetic transmission or biographical history of each individual.capable thanks to the enculturation mechanisms to accumulate knowledge beyond the genetic transmission or biographical history of each individual.capable thanks to the enculturation mechanisms to accumulate knowledge beyond the genetic transmission or biographical history of each individual.

This so singular and unique fact of our species makes us to be entities in permanent learning. We learn consciously, unconsciously, formally and informally, with pleasure, with distaste. We cannot avoid learning. Life as the proverb says gives us lessons. And although many of these lessons are the best, the reflection that concerns us here is limited to the narrow field of intentional learning. That is, that learning that has been designed, planned, and executed with an instructional method that seeks concrete results.

In this article. We present, first of all, a conceptual framework whose purpose is to organize and integrate different aspects, which every instructional project must address, grouped in the area of results, area of processes and area of content. In the results area we discuss how to formulate the learning objectives and the role they play. In the content area we see how to structure the contents depending on their nature and level of assimilation. Finally in the process area we will study the cognitive processes that occur in the minds of people who learn, the motivational processes that support their effort and the social processes involved in learning.

2. Conceptual framework

When considering how to design a learning environment, there are many aspects that we must attend to: To facilitate this task, we propose an organizational framework that allows us to organize each of our decisions and actions.

The organizational framework consists of three fundamental areas, not independent but strongly interrelated areas, that make up a system and therefore its separate analysis is only intended to facilitate its description. So we will have:

results area (R) content area (C) process area (P)

In a simple way we relate them using the following equation:

C + P => R

Although it seems obvious, as in other scenarios, in virtual learning the design sequence consists of defining first the results (R) that we want to achieve. These results are the guide with which to approach the elaboration of contents (C), as a set of information and activities to be carried out within an environment that optimizes cognitive, motivational and social processes (P).

In the results area, we study how to create a good description of the result - learning that we intend to achieve the students. Its formulation must faithfully express the purpose pursued, the results are the basis for measuring the future effectiveness of the designed environment, and also an essential guide for designing the other two areas: content and processes.

In the content area we attend to the set of information that must be incorporated into the learning environment as well as the activities that the student must carry out. Depending on the nature of this information and the objectives sought, we structure how to present it and with what activities to support it.

Information and activities must be assimilated and carried out by students within a social group and, therefore, in the process area, we attend to the key aspects of the cognitive, social and motivational processes involved in learning that can enhance or prevent it.

3. Results area

The first step, when we are going to design a course, is to define the results we want. What should students learn? It is essential to formulate clearly, precisely and measurably the objectives with which to achieve the results. The learning objectives are our guide for the choice and structure of the content. Objectives and contents are strongly interrelated, both form a whole. For each objective there must be associated content that supports it; and all content should only be included in a course if it supports a goal.

Thus, objectives are the expression of the results we want, and therefore we must formulate them in clear terms. They are the tool with which we will measure what students have to learn and what they have learned. They provide a reference to the teacher on the progress of the students, and to the students guidance on what they need to learn.

Although, there are positions of educators against setting objectives for believing that, its prescriptive nature, limits the possibilities of learning; There are many benefits to be obtained with its formulation:

For the students:

Making students aware of what they will learn by studying content makes them more aware of the way forward and what they will be able to do upon completion of their study.They are motivating in showing what personal utility they will achieve from their achievement.The learning objectives provide To the students a criterion to estimate if they have reached them or not, and therefore facilitate the decision to continue advancing, to work the content again or to ask the tutor for help.They allow avoiding the study of a content if the student already has the knowledge and skills described.

For the teacher:

It facilitates the design of the contents and the evaluation. It must be ensured that all objective evaluations are supported in the development of course material by content and activities. It facilitates communication to students to highlight the relevance of the work and activities of some content based on the desired achievements

To effectively formulate the results you want to achieve by studying a course, it is necessary to differentiate between purpose, objectives and level of performance, competence.

Purpose is a general, somewhat abstract manifestation of what the student will learn or study in a course. The purpose is the framework that determines the objectives, corresponding to the objectives the function of specifying the purpose.

On the other hand, the level of performance is the expression with which we measure the degree of achievement of the objectives.

Objectives writing

They must be written with short sentences and very direct messages and they inform the student about his goal, what he is going to achieve, in order to know where he should direct his effort. The objectives will allow the student, at the end of their learning, to check if they have achieved them or not, and therefore, if they have obtained the expected results.

The complete writing of an objective will incorporate the following components:

A verb that describes the performance (skill or knowledge) that the student will learn. We use verbs that describe observable behaviors. The conditions under which the action described by the verb is carried out. The degree of achievement achieved

In Table 1 we show some verbs that describe skills related to data, objects and people.

Examples of verbs	Verbs to avoid
Data	Objects	Persons
Analyze	Mount	Advise	Know
Compare	Disassemble	Instruct	Believe
Compile	Calibrate	Communicate	To appreciate
Compute	Build	To ease	Understand
Create	To inspect	Guide	To acquaint
Design	Keep	Influence	Understand
Estimate	Manufacture	To interview	To learn
Evaluate	Repair	Negotiate
Organize	Operate	To motivate
To plan	Paint	Persuade
Resolve	Adjust	To sell
Solve problems	prepare	Supervise
Search for		Teach
Recover		To train
Synthesize
Sort out

Table 1

4. Content area

The design of the contents used in a learning process must offer an adequate structure consistent with the student's prior knowledge. Ausubel says: “The most important factor that influences learning is what the student knows. Find this out and teach yourself accordingly. ”

Thus, it is necessary to organize the material to be taught in such a way that it connects the new information with the previous cognitive structure of the student.

Naturally, content design must always keep in mind the learning objectives that we have defined. To facilitate this work, we follow the methodology proposed by Clark in his book Developing Technical Training: the content-performance matrix, based on Merrill's Theory of Presentation Components. It consists of five instructional methods to classify and design the contents of the training: facts, concepts, processes, procedures, and principles. Combined with two levels of performance to achieve the learning objectives: remember and apply. The matrix allows us to organize content and instructional practices in coherence with the development of schemas and cognitive processes in the student; and with which to achieve the defined learning objectives.

In Table 2 we observe the combination of the type of information and objective performance.

Matrix Content - Performance

Acts

Concepts

Processes

Procedures

Beginning

Apply

Define a class of objects or events Classify new examples

Develop a process

Solve a problem.

Make an inference

Deduct or create a procedure or technique to achieve a goal

Execute the procedure

Discovery

relationships cause effect

Solve a problem.

Make an inference

Remember

Remember the facts

Remember definitions

Remember the stages

Remember

the steps

Remember the guidelines

Table 2

Below we show in greater detail the different types of content and practices necessary depending on the objective performance:

Acts. Facts consist of specific information in the form of a statement, data, or image of a particular object. We use them when we teach unique and distinctive information. The facts are described in sentences, or shown with pictures or specific objects. The practice activities will be oriented to remember characteristics, attributes, specifications or to identify images that represent them. Facts can only be learned at the remembering level and are applied alongside other types of information such as procedures or processes.

Table 3 is presented as a guide for presenting the facts.

How to present the facts
Elements / Resources	Indications
Introduction	· Mandatory · We establish the purpose and guide the student about what we hope to learn
Graphics	· Mandatory based on purpose · We use charts, fact lists and tables in any combination or order depending on the needs · We write a sentence in front of the graph saying that it is · We identify the key parts · We continue with a Table detailing the key parts · Label with a few descriptive words
Lists	· Mandatory based on purpose · We write a sentence in front of the graph saying that it is · If necessary, we detail through categories and subtags · We label to indicate inclusions
Boards	· Mandatory based on purpose · We write a sentence in front of the graph saying that it is · We list the parts with their function · We use appropriate column headings · We label to indicate inclusions

Table 3

Concepts. Concepts are units of knowledge with a common name and a definition that describes their general characteristics and that are specified with examples. In learning processes, students have to learn a wide variety of concepts necessary to classify and operate with objects and events associated with new knowledge. Therefore, when designing the teaching of concepts, it is necessary to develop a precise definition that contains a complete list of the characteristic attributes of the concept. Additionally provide examples and exercises with which to practice classification and differentiation. We use this type of instruction when we need to explain a group of objects, symbols, ideas or events that are named with a simple word or term, share a common characteristic and vary in irrelevant characteristics.

Among the activities to be practiced and depending on the level of objective performance we recommend:

If the student needs to remember the concept, practice: writing or selecting the definition Formulate a choice question or another modality Discriminate between examples and not examples Formulate a choice question or another modality

Table 4 shows a Table with indications of how to present the concepts

How to present the concepts
Elements / Resources	Indications
Introduction	· Mandatory · We establish the purpose of their learning and guide the student on what we hope they learn
Definition	· Required · We define the concept · It can be a graphic or an illustration · Clearly identify associated characteristics · Brief and focused · We use bullets to list the features
Acts	· Optional. · We use them when we need to explain something in the concept · We follow the specific indications of the facts for its preparation · If there were many facts to communicate, we could scale them to elaborate an instruction made with its own entity .
Example	· Mandatory · Ideally we will include 2 or more examples · The sequence is established from the simplest to the most complex · We use examples from different contexts · We can show them using text or graphics
No example	· Optional · We illustrate with examples that can be easily confused with related concepts · The sequence is established from the simplest to the most complex · We can show them using text or graphics · Determine why you are not a member
Analogy	· Optional · It is instructionally powerful · Relate it to the audience experience

Table 4

Processes. Processes are descriptions of how things work. Clark classifies them into two types: business processes, which describes the workflow in organizations, and technical processes, which describe how teams and natural systems work.

When we teach, it is necessary to describe each of the stages with the actions that take place in them and how the results of each action give way to the next stage.

Teaching processes aims to develop mental models in the student about how the world works. They can describe, for example, group work activities to perform a job, biological events such as photosynthesis, or the operation of a mechanical system. Often the presentation is made with visual models accompanied by the narration of the events of each stage and how they are linked with those of the next. To guarantee the correct use of a process by students, it may be insufficient to remember how it works, since the objective is for them to be able to make predictions, correct deficiencies, improve results, etc. To achieve these levels of performance it is necessary to master other knowledge, such as procedural,working with elaborate examples and doing intense practice to automate tasks.

How to present the processes
Elements / Resources	Indications
Introduction	· Mandatory · We establish the purpose and guide the student about what we hope to learn
Process table	· Mandatory · We write the steps that are taken in the process · We will write information about "who does what," "when"…
Graph diagram	· Mandatory · We illustrate the steps that are taken in the process from start to finish by illustrating it in a graph. · It is preferable to the process table because the illustrations are better remembered.
Combination of tables and diagrams	· Optional · We use an illustration to start the process and we will complement it with a table that provides additional information.

Table 5

Procedures A procedure consists of a well-defined sequence of steps resulting in the completion of a task. To teach procedures we develop a precise and clear description of the sequence of actions and necessary decisions. The objective is for students to be able to apply all the instructions learned in actions and decisions step by step within their scope of performance. To achieve an effective execution, it is convenient that we illustrate the procedure with elaborate examples and that the student has the opportunity to practice in a staggered manner based on her prior knowledge and progressive learning of the conceptual knowledge that support the procedure. We use this type of learning object when we teach how to perform an activity on a job. Specifically:

A procedure is a sequence of steps a person takes to perform a task or make a decision. A procedure lists the instructions for procedural tasks. Actions within a procedure must be carried out in the same way at all times (within a situation determined)

Table 6

How to present the procedures
Elements / Resources	Indications
Introduction	Mandatory · We establish the purpose and guide the student on what we expect him to learn
Acts	Optional. We use them when we need to explain something in the procedure. We can include the facts in a column of the Procedure Table. For example: IOS control definitions We will follow the indications of the learning object of type facts for its elaboration If there were many facts to communicate we could scale them to elaborate a learning object of type made with its own entity.
Procedure Table	At least one of Procedure or Decision or Combined is mandatory. We write an introductory phrase. We label the columns with: "STEP…. ACTIONS ”We start each step with an action verbWe limit each step to an action
Decision Tables	At least one of Procedure or Decision or Combined is mandatory. We write an introductory phrase. We label the columns with: "YES…. THENWrite the condition (If) and the action (then) in such a way that it forms a complete statementTransfer the repeated words to the column header
Combined Tables	At least one Procedure or Decision or Combined Mandatory We follow the instructions of the Procedure and Decision Tables Generally we start with a Procedure Table including as one of its steps a Decision Table (A table within another table)
Demonstration	Optional We will use it to illustrate the procedure.

Beginning. A principle is a cause and effect relationship that produces a predictable result. Effective teaching requires the student to understand the conceptual or scientific basis. The causal principles are behind the complex knowledge that underlies many of the technical procedures. Reigluth points out strategies for her teaching. First define the general relationship and provide a detailed example. It is very useful if you can work with a dynamic example. Examples and practice should progress progressively, starting with simple examples and gradually showing more complex examples. We use the principles when we want to teach how to transfer the skills learned in the training program to the job:

They differ from the procedures, because the steps that are taught can vary over time, so they are shown a series of orientation guides within the different situations.In principle, a cause-effect relationship is established with a predictable result. We will provide Best Practice guides normally based on observation and experience.

How to present the principles
Elements / Resources	Indications
Introduction	Mandatory We will consider what the guide will expose.
Guides	Mandatory We include a measurable action verb We write complete instructions We include all the terms and data you need to remember
Examples	Mandatory We will include one or two examples We will use them to illustrate the development of the steps outlined in the guide.
No examples	Optional They are used in contrast to the examples.

Table 7

5.1. Cognitive processes

All human mental activity is supported by cognitive processes, when we learn the mind is supported by these processes and therefore the result obtained depends on its effectiveness.

We review in this section the cognitive processes involved in learning, and identify critical aspects of their functioning. These processes are executed using a complex architecture, which we describe below in a simplified manner and which have supported experts in proposing effective design principles and guidelines with which to develop online learning environments.

For the description of the architecture of human memory we follow the Atkinson-Shiffrin proposal based on a three-stage sequence: sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory. (Figure 3)

Sensory memory consists of a warehouse where the information received by our senses is retained for a short period of time in its same format and preserving the physical characteristics of the sensory stimulus. Basically, it is of two types: iconic memory discovered by Sperling in 1960 and used for recording visual information and echoic memory that records auditory information. The auditory format remains around two seconds, while the visual information is retained for approximately 0.25 seconds. Its capacity is very large although, as we have seen, it has a short duration. The function of these memories is to maintain the information so that it can be transferred to the short-term memory before it disappears; it therefore functions as a buffer for the stimuli received by the senses.

A limited part of the information received by the sensory memory, that which receives attention, passes to the short memory, the rest of the information being written or vanished. It is important to highlight that in order for the information to be transferred to short-term memory, it is necessary to pay attention.

Short-term memory, also known as working memory, is a storage and processing system in which information is retained, in the absence of processing or review, for approximately 30 seconds. However, the essential function of working memory is to actively and consciously process information. The information remains in the working memory while we are using it and paying attention; but with a limitation, the maximum number of elements or units of information that we can process is approximately 7. It is known as the magic number 7 + -2 (Miller, 1956). The limitation of working memory capacity is a fact of great importance when designing learning environments. Information overload can hinder and even prevent, as we will see later,carry out the processes necessary to learn.

Baddeley proposes a working memory model that consists of the following and interactive components: the phonological loop, the visual spatial agenda and the central executive (Figure 4)

The phonological loop refers to a specialized process in verbal information. This subcomponent acts, therefore, as an automatic and passive storage system that stores words and sounds with a decay of their content in less than two seconds and also as a process with consumption of attentional resources and which, through its articulatory loop, maintains active words and sounds. In this way the loop is concerned both with the transient storage of verbal material and with maintaining the internal speech involved in short-term memory. It also transforms non-phonological entries such as written words or pictures into phonological format.

The other subsystem is visual spatial information processing, responsible for storing visual information, shapes and colors, as well as the position and speed of objects in space. You can passively retain information but consume attention when you perform transformation or rotation processes with the images.

The central executive is in charge of the control of the different activities in the working memory, selectively attends to the stimuli of the sensory memory, assigns the attention resources to the various elements on which it operates, temporarily maintains and manipulates information stored in the memory of long term and acts as a supervisor of all conscious activities (thinking, reasoning, decision making, problem solving, creativity,…).

Finally, long-term memory is the warehouse where all the biographical experiences, skills, information, categories and rules that have been processed by sensory and working memory remain indefinitely. It is, in short, where our knowledge resides, its content can be retained practically throughout life and has practically unlimited capacity. People do not have direct awareness of this memory. It is only possible to realize its content and operation through the conscious operations of the working memory

Its basic functions are: Store the information received through the senses, after its elaboration by the working memory. Allow the recovery of information by working memory. And provide the schemas from which we interpret the world.

Depending on the nature of what is stored, we speak of two types of Squire memory: declarative and procedural.

Declarative memory is manifested with two subtypes: semantic and episodic memory (Figure 6). Semantic memory: stores general data and information such as encyclopedia or dictionary. Organized in networks in which knowledge is represented as a set of nodes, which would be the concepts, and the connections that connect the nodes.

Recovery involves some type of search through the network. When we work on a concept, it generates an activation that expands or propagates to other concepts in the network with which it is associated, facilitating its access.

Episodic memory: where the events that have personal meaning are stored, it is an autobiographical memory since it stores the episodes that make up the biography of an individual. Memories are modified with new recreations when they are recovered depending on the specific needs of the moment: that is, we rebuild them every time we count them. Memories are stored as concepts, organized in narrative structures, which give them meaning and temporal sequence.

Finally, the procedural memory: what is learned through direct experience and that is expressed with the execution of some skill, for example, driving, playing tennis,… Thus, the knowledge stored in our MLP is organized with a structure to which In a general way we call schema (Figure 7). Schema is abstract and organized information that represents what one knows about the world. The modifiable organization, with the capacity to fit the new information. Schemas are formed and developed from new experiences and by accumulation of information. An activated schema can guide us to search for information to fill in the gaps and build a coherent and complete interpretation.

Schemas provide the basis and structures for understanding and allow predicting and classifying new experiences. If we have not had any experience or if we have had limited experiences in relation to a topic, we will not have diagrams or they will be insufficient to achieve understanding. The information is stored in long-term memory, as we saw previously, in diagrams. The schemes can be simple and contain few elements, or they can contain other schemes and reach a high degree of complexity.

The theory of cognitive load and the cognitive theory of multimedia learning study the cognitive processes in the students who intervene in learning, providing us with principles with which to design more effective online learning environments.

5.2. Cognitive load theory

The theory of cognitive load is based on the limitation of the capacity of working memory to process all the information from sensory memory and that which it recovers from long-term memory and therefore the need to manage its scarce cognitive resources. Instructional design should manage the working memory capacity and avoid the overload that prevents or hinders the assimilation of a concept or the development of a skill. The load on working memory is generated by the sum of three different cognitive loads. The intrinsic burden associated with the nature and complexity of the information presented; the extrinsic load, determined by the way of presenting the task and finally the German load, consisting of the necessary use of resources to build and automate schemas in long-term memory.The intrinsic cognitive load is related to the nature of the information and prior knowledge (schemas) that the student already possesses. The intrinsic load depends on the number of elements to be processed simultaneously, as well as on the relationships of the elements to each other. Available schemes reduce intrinsic load; since they manage to integrate more information with fewer elements. This is why expert people are more effective in solving problems than novice people. In turn, the extrinsic cognitive load is produced by information and processes that are not learning but that consume resources from working memory. A fundamental objective of a good instructional design is to eliminate the extrinsic cognitive load on working memory, both in the verbal and auditory channels.The German cognitive load is directly linked to the processes to generate learning, building schemes or automating their use. The automatic application of the schemes does not generate cognitive load of the working memory, since they are carried out without consuming attention. The three described loads are summative, therefore an instructional strategy must try to eliminate the extrinsic load, decrease the intrinsic load, reducing the complexity of information and tasks, especially in the initial learning phases; in order to leave the largest available capacity of working memory for Germanic use in learning. The progressive generation of new schemes, as well as their strengthening for automatic application, is the obligatory work to transform the new student into an expert.

5.3. Cognitive theory of multimedia learning

The cognitive theory of multimedia learning, on the other hand, is based on the following assumptions, as we have seen in the description of the architecture of human memory:

Working memory consists of an ear canal and a visual canal, specialized in the separate processing of visual and oral information. The process is carried out in three stages. Information first enters either the ear or the visual canal. The information is then processed separately, although simultaneously on each of the working memory channels. Finally, the information from both channels is integrated and connected with the information from the long-term memory. The capacity of the working memory is limited by the information that can be processed on each channel simultaneously. When a person is attending a presentation, they can only retain a few images and sounds at the same time. Meaningful learning occurs through retention,coherent organization and integration of verbal and graphic information from working memory to long-term memory. In other words, people actively process information in order to produce coherent representations of their experiences. There is no passive incorporation of information, constantly, the mind is selecting, organizing and integrating information with past knowledge. Learning occurs by applying these cognitive processes to the input information, resulting in the creation of a mental representation of that information.There is no passive incorporation of information, constantly, the mind is selecting, organizing and integrating information with past knowledge. Learning occurs by applying these cognitive processes to the input information, resulting in the creation of a mental representation of that information.There is no passive incorporation of information, constantly, the mind is selecting, organizing and integrating information with past knowledge. Learning occurs by applying these cognitive processes to the input information, resulting in the creation of a mental representation of that information.

In summary, active learning is the result of selecting, through attention, the relevant information of your organization and finally integration with previous knowledge schemes, within a working memory with limited capacity. The application of this theory to online instructional design is specified in the following principles:

Multimedia Principle: The use of two combined formats (words and pictures) causes a double representation of the information in our brain. As a consequence, this information is encoded and stored in various ways in our memory, in such a way that it improves their learning and the memory of it.

Practical application for e-learning:

Include text and graphics in the content we produce. The text and graphics must form an interactive set where what is shown in one format is supported in another format, but does not repeat the same information. We must use highly visual text formats That is, they generate a mental image of what is being explained. The text should describe the situation to us. Graphic formats are relevant rather than decorative elements of learning. Use graphic animations to illustrate processes, procedures, or principles. Graphic formats help us show the relationship between ideas. We can also use graphic formats for epigraphs or topics of a lesson or for the interface of a course (they facilitate navigation and the memory of how to navigate).

Spatial Contiguity Principle: This principle defends that whenever an image is captured within the development of a course, it must be linked to the text or the words that describe it, that is, the words and their corresponding images must be contiguous.

Practical application for e-learning:

Place the explanatory contents next to the graphics they describe. That we see everything at a glance, on the same screen. Make links to the information that was mentioned and that appeared previously. The link should point to the place where the information appears, for example, where we define a concept or principle that we are currently applying. Use techniques such as pop-up windows and reduce graphics that integrate text and graphics. It is advisable to use graphic modes, for example, photographs of a device that when hovering over certain areas brings up a text window. What is requested in an activity must appear together with the necessary elements to solve it, all integrated in the same screen.We must avoid to the maximum that our students have to navigate through other screens to find the necessary information to know what they have to do. That the answer to the questions that arise appear on the same screen. Likewise, we must report the result of the activities proposals on the same screen that the activity appears. We will avoid that the student has to go, for example, to the end of the lesson to know if he / she properly carried out the proposed task.at the end of the lesson to know if you have adequately carried out the proposed task.at the end of the lesson to know if you have adequately carried out the proposed task.

Coherence Principle: This principle tells us that the images and sounds must be consistent with the text that is being exposed. Very disparate images and sounds distract attention and hinder learning.

Practical e-learning application:

Avoid loud, flashy, extravagant or strange sounds such as bells, sirens, beeps, etc. in e-learning presentations and lessons. Also avoid background music or ambient sounds that are not related to the lesson. In short, do not incorporate any sounds or music that draw attention and distract students, use only essential material. If your material is in graphic format (illustrations, photos, graphics, video or animations) do not use it, unless it is essential. It is not enough that it is related to the content. The e-learning lessons that present content in text format, either in visual or auditory mode (narrations), should only contain the essential and necessary points for learning. We should never saturate with accessory content.

Principle of Modality: We learn better when there is animation and narration about such animation, than text and images; result of using two different channels of information input. Therefore, the learning that there is a narration of what is presented on the screen improves, if this is possible.

Practical application e-elarning:

Whenever possible, audio narratives can be used to reinforce graphic content.Use audio narrations to explain static (illustrations, photos, graphics, etc.) or dynamic (video or animation) graphic formats.

Redundancy Principle: It is better that if there is a narration or image referring to the content, these are not the same as what we are reading, this would be redundant. The narration or image reinforces the text but does not trace it.

Practical application for e-learning:

We can accompany graphic formats with content in text format but it is always better that they be narrated in audio format. Graphics that are described by auditory narrations should not have redundant written text.

Personalization Principle: It is convenient to use a conversational style better than a too formal style.

Practical application for e-learning:

Present your content in conversational language. Do not use excessively serious and formal language. Use words that reflect closeness between students and you when writing your content. Use personal pronouns that reflect closeness to you, us, self. If you use narrations, you can help yourself from an "agent" that can be similar to a person or any object. It is important that your voice and narrations are as natural as possible.

Principle of Individualization: We must adapt our content to our audience. When designing e-learning content it is necessary to take into account the nature of our students. That is to say, we must know if they are experts or novices in a subject, if they are motivated beforehand towards the contents or, on the contrary, they feel "forced" to study, etc.

Practical application for e-learning:

- Take into account the audience to which the content is directed.Design attractive content that motivates students to learn the subject

5.4. Motivational processes

What is motivation ?. We can define motivation as the set of processes that provide the strength, impulse or energy necessary to activate, direct and maintain our behavior. The types of motivation and their magnitude, we observe:

In the choice made when the possibility of choosing different activities is presented. In the face of persistence in a task. In the effort we show when carrying out the task. In the emotions that accompany the performance of an activity.

The more energy, strength or impulse we have, the more motivated we will be towards an activity. Consequently, "apparently" it will be easier to perform the task and get better performance. This does not mean that we do not have to make efforts to achieve our goal, but that the sensations that accompany the effort will be more pleasant. Learning consists of a series of behaviors that are directed towards a goal. One of the elements involved in the learning process is the learner himself, who may be more or less predisposed to make a considerable effort to learn (we do not always feel like spending time in front of the computer and expanding our knowledge or it may be that its update comes recommended from other instances, which sometimes does not attract us too much).The learner's predisposition is reflected in his motivational level. This level will give the necessary strength, impulse and energy to carry out the behaviors that lead us to the proposed goal (to learning). Therefore, there is a direct relationship between learning and motivation. Motivation, among others, produces the following effects on learning:

It confers strength and persistence on the learner's behaviors. It directs their behaviors towards the proposed goal. It maintains the persistence of "learning" over time.

Therefore, and given the role that motivation has in learning, it is necessary to ask ourselves: How can we increase motivation in students? From the psychology of motivation, a person motivated to learn is a person with a high intrinsic motivation and a low extrinsic motivation, a person who seeks to enjoy the learning that is taking place and who is interested in the learning process itself. not just the result of your learning. Not only are you interested in passing the exam that accredits you as an expert in a certain area or achieving a promotion, but you are also interested in thinking and analyzing the world as the experts in that area do. On the contrary, people with a low motivation for learning are people who only look for the results, the product,the diploma that accredits you as an expert in this or that area.

Let's learn how to differentiate intrinsic motivation from extrinsic motivation. In the intrinsic motivation we can observe the following details:

The person is interested in the activity itself, which is an end in itself, not a means to achieve another goal. Learning takes place without apparent external influences or rewards that clearly regulate it. Sometimes the reward interferes with learning. Control of the learning process is in the learner himself. An intrinsically controlled action must create three types of feelings or sensations in people: self-determination, competence (feeling able to perform the task proposal), satisfaction for doing something own and family.

The following components are also present in intrinsic motivation:

Self-determination or principle of autonomy. The cause of our behavior is ourselves. The apprentice feels the origin of his behavior. He feels that he is doing the learning and the tasks because he has decided so. It gives greater strength, value and energy to the actions we carry out. It involves developing content, tasks, tutorials where the apprentice has autonomy of decision about what happens. It is reflected in the ability to choose and determine the circumstances and content of your action. The feelings of competition.Believing that we are capable of doing a task increases our motivation. The sense of competence of the apprentice increases his intrinsic motivation and the perception of his incapacity discourages him. The expectation of self-efficacy or the feeling of effectiveness that we have before facing a task influences: the tasks that we choose, the goals that we set ourselves, the planning to reach a goal, the effort that we use to carry out the tasks and the persistence of our actions. Intrinsic motivation depends on past experiences and their interpretation, and involves developing affordable or easy-to-understand content and tasks where various skill levels are contemplated. We should not pose entirely new tasks since they cause abandonment by the subject. The greater the sense of competition,more demands, aspirations and greater dedication to achieving the objective. Interest and, consequently, motivation towards an activity also depends on how it is presented to us, that is, on the attractiveness of the task. The man has a predisposition of curiosity that appears only before the moderation of the variety and the unforeseen. Completely new and unforeseen tasks discourage people.

Regarding extrinsic motivation, student behavior is characterized by the following details:

You are interested in the goal, which is the purpose of your actions. The proposed goal has to do with an external contingency (promise of tangible and external benefit). (ie passing an exam). The environment (the teacher-tutor) is the one that regulates the behavior. When his figure disappears, the apprentice ceases in his learning process. The control and regulation of the learning process is done through reinforcements, incentives and punishment.

And the following components are present:

1. The reinforcement. Any aspect of the environment that is presented to the subject after a sequence of actions and that modifies the probability of subsequent occurrence (rewards, punishments). The incentive. The incentive (motivational) is the external object or contingency to which a certain self-attributed value is given . Example: The social value that is given to a certain brand of car.

Reinforcement and incentive give energy and impulse to the initiation of behaviors - high or low incentive value. Reinforcements are administered during or after the behavior, and incentives are prior indicators of the value of and “instigating” the action.

Under certain circumstances, reinforcement can have a debilitating effect . Reinforcement can have a positive or harmful effect on subjects' motivation and reduce the quality and vigor (motivation) with which the task is performed. For example, the action and motivation of students is damaged:

When waiting for reinforcement causes concern about its arrival, consequently it reduces strength and persistence in learning. If the reinforcement is very strong or outgoing, the feeling of external control arises, although the behavior is regulated by the apprentice himself. Material reinforcements harm the action. Example: Money.

Very abstract and symbolic rewards do not cause a drop in motivation. Example: Praise.

However, when the interest in the task is low, for example, with boring, very simple, uncomfortable, undesirable tasks, the use of the reward is appropriate.

Once the relevance that intrinsic motivation has in student learning is highlighted, we will see how to promote it in the design of tasks and content.

To make the tasks more attractive and motivating, we will take into account the following principles:

Multidimensionality principle. Multidimensional tasks are better for learning orientation. All students do not have to do the same activities, we must promote autonomy through the possibility of choice. It is possible to achieve identical objectives in learning a discipline by doing different activities (proposing different activities with the same learning objectives). That the apprentice can choose. The choice fosters the feeling of autonomy, of being the agent of their own learning, which is fundamental for the development of the self-regulatory processes involved in motivational learning orientation. With this methodology, a certain commitment to the task is acquired. It is not an imposed task from which it is legitimate to disassociate, it is the task that was chosen.Fragmentation principle. Fragmenting the task into steps facilitates learning and motivation. Setting intermediate goals makes it possible to achieve partial objectives and such achievement invites you to persist in the task. Learning to divide the task is a skill that produces motivation for learning and, vice versa, consolidating this type of orientation in students facilitates the implementation of fragmentation mechanisms. The proposal of tasks and activities fragmented in phase or steps increases the probability of success of the apprentices and, therefore, their orientation to learning. Optimal challenge principle.Being motivated does not imply submitting to extreme situations, even if it is within a theme that can be absolutely attractive to us. Czikszenmihalyi argues that the ability to attract a task to its optimal challenge depends on two dimensions: the level of difficulty and the person's sense of competence with respect to the task.. When it is very easy, it only "engages" if a low level of competence is perceived for its realization. When the task is very difficult, a high level of competence must be perceived so that the challenge remains optimal. When the task difficulty is low and the sense of competition high, boredom occurs. On the contrary, when the task is very difficult and the feeling of competition lowers, what is produced is anxiety and fear: it scares

Regarding the contents, when presenting a topic, a lesson or a task, it is advisable to choose three general-use strategies that increase intrinsic motivation:

Activate curiosity Curiosity is generated through two dimensions of the task: variety and novelty. We have to study in detail how the tasks and materials used activate curiosity. This criterion must be added when opting for some materials or others. If there is no choice but to use something that appears to be a "stick", we have to make an effort to activate curiosity. The materials used should be presented in such a way that they arouse curiosity in the potential audience. Proposals should involve the widest possible variety of proposals. The statements should be written in a pleasant way and with topics close to daily life. We should not repeat the same structure in the tasks or if we do it, as few times as possible.Emphasize the usefulness of learning. Learners will be more willing to learn what they perceive useful for their world. We even have to find the usefulness of abstract knowledge. In the worst case, usefulness can always be found in facilitating future learning from the discipline itself, which is thus more easily perceived as useful. Sometimes, simply by changing the context, we can develop tasks that are closer to our students and, incidentally, emphasize their usefulness and encourage their curiosity. Utility can be understood in several ways:
1. As a material-instrumental utility (something helps me to get something else I'm looking for). As a utility at the service of self-improvement (something helps me to improve myself, be a better person,… whatever the concept I have of it) As historical utility (I am able to understand that for the philosopher or the mathematician, such a discovery was a great advance).
Evaluation at the service of motivation. Any learning needs some evaluation to find out the degree of mastery achieved. The evaluation of knowledge has a fundamental role in the learning process and motivation. It is directly related to orientation and motivation to learn (intrinsic). Knowing how to evaluate implies:
1. Know with some objectivity (with previous objectives) what has been achieved and what is lacking. This requires some knowledge in the field and experience of using that knowledge. Communicate this valuable information. It is about giving publicly or privately to each apprentice useful information, continual praise for their achievements. When we are learning something with great interest, we need an expert close to us to give us an informative, affective, quality assessment where appropriate. The evaluation motivates because it involves three of the dimensions involved in the definition of the motivational process, since it activates, guides and affects. As a result of the evaluations we receive from an apprenticeship, we usually derive certain wishes or intentions for the near future,some guidelines on where to go and where to go. From e-learning, we are interested in a way of evaluating that activates us towards learning, that guides us to improve our knowledge and that affects us positively and gives us enough energy to justify the efforts we have to make. When we receive an evaluation that indicates our position on the set of learners, the quality of the final result on immovable standards, is also motivating us, mainly to social comparison and maintenance of self-esteem. Evaluate according to a norm or a criterion. The evaluation according to a norm is based on comparing the performances with a norm or scale in which the different degrees of possible achievement of the learning are included. The evaluation usuallyIt is summarized in a numerical rating that works as if it were a percentile, it shows us the degree of execution and our distance from the established mean. The evaluation according to criteria is based on the establishment of a series of achievements that must be met or of different consequences that we must acquire. It means knowing what learning objectives we have to achieve in each phase and reporting the degree of acquisition of each in a different way. The student is informed of the objectives he must achieve at all times and after working towards the objectives, how far he has come. Evaluate the process or the product. Usually, the evaluation is based on comparing a final product of a learning with a standard norm without taking into account the process that has been carried out: what is significant is the solution,the result, the final execution. In this way, the idea is promoted that learning consists in reproducing as closely as possible the result obtained by the expert. Copying and reproduction prevail over the idea of personal appropriation, transformation and generalization. A process-focused assessment provides systematic information on the development of learning that has taken place. It refers to all the path followed during the practice or the training activity, likewise, it does not necessarily have to ignore the information related to the result. In general, for the acquisition of knowledge there can be different paths and different solutions. The process and the product is not one, predetermined, but there are alternatives; the important thing is not the copy,what matters is knowing if we have achieved viable products or not, if they work, in short. Evaluating only the result causes the apprentice to focus on their level of execution and not on the process followed, also to activate motivational patterns close to performance (extrinsic), to achieve the standard in any way and to be noticed in public. Evaluating only the process focuses attention on developing patterns of improvement or behavior control. The important thing is to know how you work, and how you can acquire knowledge, public or private evaluation. Publicizing the results of an evaluation, establishes comparisons between peers, and promotes a competitive climate. The criterion of value in said social comparison are certain personal characteristics that are conceived as substantial and innate,for example, intelligence, physical courage, or authoritarianism. Learning does not matter, what matters is its value of social prestige. When a bad evaluation result is reported in a public place or within the reach of anyone, our privacy is lost. One or two unpleasant experiences are enough for us to try to avoid these unmotivating scenarios. On the other hand, when it comes to privately reporting on performance, it is convenient to do so in relation to certain criteria and giving information about the process, focusing the student's attention on their personal work and on how to overcome possible errors, it is say, in your own learning process. Performance evaluation is one of the dimensions that most influences the formation of different motivational patterns.Traditional forms of evaluation (referred to as standards, product-focused and public in nature) enhance the development of motivation for performance (extrinsic) in the case of students with high success rates and fear of failure in students with poor performance. Carrying out criteria-based evaluations, focused on the process and privately, facilitates the development of learning motivation

5.5. Social processes

Learning is not only built by interacting with the content but by working with peers and teachers. As we will see in more depth in the next article, learning is a social process and therefore active environments where the student socially interacts, asks and answers questions, gives and receives advice, and creates emotional bonds are more effective. Rena Pallof states that "in online education, it is through the relationships and interactions between people that knowledge is generated primarily", "it is necessary to pay attention to the development of a sense of community in the group of participants to ensure that the learning process is successful ”The social aspect of learning is manifested through the different roles that the participants play: teacher, mentor, evaluator, counselor,buddy etc. and that with their multiple interactions they enrich and configure a powerful learning process far beyond the mere interaction of the student with the content. Peer learning is very valuable, surprisingly effective in building bonds of camaraderie among participants that facilitates the exchange of tacit learning. Through collaboration, students are more active and self-sufficient. Schulman states that "the valuation of ideas actively, thoughtfully and collaboratively in a social context is one of the most important remedies to combat misunderstandings and the persistence of misconceptions." Collaboration does not arise spontaneously, but must be structured and constructed.In a generic way we will articulate the design of social collaboration in an online environment in three components:

Activities

These are the lines for your design

- Relate collaborative activities to objectives Assign tasks that require collaboration Size the size and knowledge of participant groups to optimize interactions Elaborate task assignment in relation to products (for example: a project) or processes (for example: problem-based learning)
Participants

In The Virtual Student, Palloff and Pratt describe the best characteristics of students in an online course: openness, flexibility and a sense of humor, honesty and a willingness to collaborate. The spirit of collaboration is essential to the success of a learning community. Essentially, they must at least commit to:

- Be respectful of other students Perform a fair and reasonable part of the work Help each other, responding and evaluating the ideas proposed

To be efficient in developing a collaborative environment, teachers should, at least in the implementation phase:

- Make each participant feel welcome Express themselves clearly to avoid misunderstandings Teach how to collaborate Invite students to participate Provide immediate response Actively moderate without imposing Represent a model to be imitated Set limits when participation evolves in the wrong direction

In the next article we describe in more detail theories, which support the social nature of learning, formulas, with which to design collaborative environments, and online tools, which facilitate interactions between people who learn together.

Ruiz-Vargas, JM: Memory and forgetfulness. Madrid: Trotta, 2002

Oakley, DA (1983). The varieties of memory: A phylogenetic approach. In A. Mayes (Ed.), Memory in animals and humans (pp. 20-82). Cambridge, England: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

Ausubel, D., Novak, J. & Hanesian, H. (1978) Educational Psychology: A Cognitive View (2nd Ed.) (New York, Holt, Rinehart & Winston).

Clark, R. (1999).Developing technical training. Washington, DC: International Society for Performance Improvement.

Merrill, D. (1983). Component display theory. In CM Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional design theories and models: an overview of their current status. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 279–333.

Reigeluth, CM (1999). What is instructional-design theory and how is it changing? In CM Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional-design theories and models: A new paradigm of instructional theory (Vol. II, pp. 5–29). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Atkinson, RC & Shiffrin, RM (1968). Human memory: a proposed system and its control processes. In KW Spence & JT Spence (Eds.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory. (Vol. 2). New York: Academic Press. Pp. 89-195.

Sperling, G. (1960). The information available in brief visual presentations. Psychological Monographs, 74 (11, Whole No. 498).

Miller, GA (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63, 81-97.

Baddeley, A. (1992). Working memory. Science, 255, 556–559.

Sweller, J., van Merrienboer, J., & Paas, F. (1998). Cognitive architecture and instructional design. Educational Psychology Review, 10, 251–296.

Squire LR. 1986. Mechanisms of memory. Science. 232: 1612–1619

Chandler, P. & Sweller, (1991) Cognitive load theory and the format of instruction, Cognition and Instruction, 8, pp. 293-332.

Moreno, R., & Mayer, RE (1999). Cognitive principles of multimedia learning: The role of modality and contiguity effects. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 358–368.

Ames, C. (1992). Classrooms: Goals, structure, and student motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 261–271.

Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly (1990), Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience, New York: HarperCollins.

Palloff, Rena M. and Pratt, Keith (2001). Lessons from the Cyberspace Classroom: The Realities of Online Teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Schulman, LS (1999). Taking Learning Seriously. Change Magazine 31, 10–17

Palloff, R. & Pratt, K. (2003). The virtual student: a profile and guide to working with online learners. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Download the original file