Studies have become the center of hope, particularly in academic settings, given the epistemological disorientation that is one of the most outstanding features in the initial training of the Venezuelan teacher. It is clear to understand that the contributions of epistemological studies are producing transformations in different settings of the intellectual world and may clear up the unknowns that are woven around them.
The term epistemology comes from the Greek verb epistéme ἐπιστήμη (knowledge, logos λόγος, theory) which means to impose oneself on something because one is sure, the noun epistéme refers to unshakable and scientific knowledge from the time of the Renaissance. It should be noted that epistemological studies have always been carried out based on and in the context of Philosophy, Sociology and even politics. Today, we are doing it in the field of education as it is an ideal setting for the philosophical sciences.
Unlike methodology, epistemology questions the knowledge already accepted as valid by the scientific community. From this perspective, researchers who are based on epistemology question the exclusive value of statistics, statistical data and samples used. It is presumed in the reflections made that epistemology does not influence the object of study in the research, that is, that the techniques and procedures of each of the methods to obtain knowledge, to organize it and the criteria to validate it is indifferent.
This presumption is based on the approach of Miguel Martínez Migueles (2004) for whom the word episteme means firmness, stability, solidity; epi means over and esteme comes from the sancritic root stha which means to stand to look over, it is found in innumerable Latin words, such as being, state, statue, statute, stability, verifying, contributing, instructing, structure, among others (p.227).
However, it must be meant that epistemology has undergone innumerable changes throughout the history of humanity, it can be assured, that there is a force that animates epistemology forever; it is the resource of the search for truth as a regulatory idea. Epistemology is related to the way
- How knowledge is learned How knowledge is organized What are the bases for the organization of knowledge
For a better understanding of this precept, the different theories that have prevailed at different times are critically exposed below, including: the hypothetical deductive approach (from top to bottom), the inductive approach (from bottom to top) and the project approach.
Epistemological bases in investigations with a hypothetical deductive approach
In this approach, knowledge must be organized around fundamental concepts, themes or principles, and it is from the understanding of these concepts that the researcher develops his ability to deduce facts and make particular applications. This approach is based on the assumption that all knowledge can be obtained deductively from a small set of abstract general ideas; considering them basic truths.
According to Strike and Posner, (1979) what demonstrates the value of a theory is its ability to sustain itself in the face of serious attempts to falsify it. Consequently, the scientific method is in this field, the facilitating element to pose daring hypotheses about the world based on a set of theories and basic concepts in a discipline, deductively elaborating the empirical consequences of these hypotheses, trying to falsify them to gather relevant information.
Those hypotheses, which the scientist is incapable of falsifying, support the theories and concepts from which they are derived.
The main representatives of this trend are Popper (1959) and Kuhn (1975) who point out that any analysis of the scientific method must be based on a detailed examination of what scientists actually do and with which particular convictions are they compromised?
Although Popper's ideas seem to offer the epistemological framework most coherent with the hypothetical deductive approach, Schawb's analyzes (1962 - 1964), seem to have been the most influential since, he defines the discipline as a body of study with a coherent set of substantive and syntactic structures.
The substantive structures of the discipline are formed through the concepts, basic principles that organize the most specific events in the discipline. These structures are essentially the fundamental ideas of the discipline that form the context within which scientists elaborate their research questions, that is, the formulation of the problem, are the questions that guide the inquiries.
While the syntactic structures of a discipline are based on the way in which the experts (of that discipline) establish truth and validity. The aspects of the discipline are the way in which scientists justify their conclusions, which has evidence in a postulate and what kinds of inferences are legitimate. These aspects provide the rules to solve conflicts between postulates that compete for knowledge.
Although many have treated it, there has been no philosopher who establishes a clear definition of what a discipline is. Simply, human knowledge cannot be separated into exact behaviors.
So how do you set boundary conditions for a discipline, how do you decide if a subfield is a discipline? If it is independent or not? How do you know that a sub-discipline means an interdisciplinary, multidisciplinary or transdisciplinary research effort? and Are the disciplines crossed? How far can our appreciations go? These and other reflections are the unknowns that remain unsolved.
Epistemological bases in the inductive approach
Knowledge and its learning originate with experience through the impressions of the senses, producing mental copies that, in turn, comprise the association or union of ideas.
In this sense, Posner (1998) concluded that generalizations at the highest mental level are at the same time, constructed from the lowest level. It is inferred then, that the general is always constituted from the particular and, fundamentally, from the particular sensory experiences.
While for Gagne (1965 - 1970), learning and knowledge are atomistic, since he tried to identify the simplest elements (the atoms) of learning. It considers that the development of a curriculum must include the retrospective work of complex intellectual abilities to discover increasingly basic units, fundamentally and in the unions, I stimulate simpler responses.
That is to say, that both Hume and Gagne had an approach to learning and knowledge that can be described as inductive, that is, that the general is derived from the particular.
It would make little sense then, to teach something new without first providing the necessary prerequisites. Therefore, it is the responsibility of the research advisers to organize the objectives into a series of steps small enough so that the trainees are never lost on the research journey.
With this deductive trend, novice researchers could be given a great deal of responsibility so that they can achieve the success required in solving problems.
Epistemological bases in the project approach
The project approach assumes that novice researchers must learn through activities that allow them to develop recently acquired skills (prior knowledge), which are applied through direct and active personal experience in order to illuminate, reinforce and assimilate knowledge.. This approach had its genesis in the progressive educational movement at the end of the 19th century with John Dewey, the main defender of progressivism, who articulated two main currents within the movements:
- The new concern for the interests and development of students. The conviction that the power of education improves society.
These two currents were united in the progressive theory of experiential education. It may be said that project-focused research can highlight the experiences brought in by novice researchers by relating them to the real world, in particular to the social life of the community, through which the intellect, attitudes and abilities are developed. necessary to participate in a democratic society and to improve it.
Perhaps the most important meaningful participation in the lives of students is being able to take control of their lives, but to do so, they must consider their contributions as a common good. Therefore, research as a fundamental method of social reform shapes individuals, who in turn shape society.
It is evident in Dewey's (1859-1952) approaches that the focal point of this approach is the community and the society that surrounds educational institutions. While the themes and problems of the social world provide a source of topics for teaching, and material for research projects.
These activities tend to take an interdisciplinary form, since the project approach requires the examination of social or topical problems considering them as a whole, using the information and skills of various disciplines.
In addition, project-focused research encourages students with different interests and abilities to work together in defining and posing a common problem; in this way, they form a democratic community in miniature.
Approaches to organize knowledge in research
The organization of knowledge in research, according to the hypothetical-deductive approach seeks to identify the fundamental ideas, is derived from the assumptions about how knowledge should be organized in research.
With this trend, it is assumed that a thesis advisor, equipped only with the fundamental ideas of a discipline and the knowledge of the method that scientists use to generate the most particular ideas, can in fact, extrapolate them as necessary.
Although the structure of the disciplines may have been widely criticized, the assumption about the novel researcher's ability to derive the fundamental ideas of the discipline on his own is highlighted.
While most of the scientific concepts on which modern technology was based were originally derived from these fundamental ideas, most researchers were unable to do so. It is possible that a percentage of novice researchers could acquire this ability, but most have weaknesses in manipulating these concepts easily enough to make the necessary deductions.
If you are going to work in your research with a hypothetical-deductive approach, you must take into account that the epistemological postulate is that each discipline is different and has its own structure, which includes a set of fundamental themes, concepts or interrelated principles and a mode of investigation.
The inductive approach is only a principle of sequence formation, that is, it only refers to the vertical structure. Therefore, such a principle does not refer to the question of How to organize a set of prerequisites for an investigation? What skill should I possess? What concepts should I know? How to apply the given principles ?.
I must point out that in researches with an inductive approach, the new researcher bears most of the responsibility, since he must understand the main concepts and particularly derive the most specific applications. The adviser's responsibility, meanwhile, is to ensure that the investigation reflects the solution of the problem in the discipline with the specific techniques and procedures.
We must remember that inductive research is based on the assumption that novice researcher learning can almost always occur if, and only if, the research objectives have been properly sequenced, if appropriate teaching has been provided and if had enough time to learn.
If you are going to conduct research with an inductive approach, you should consider that the epistemological postulate is focused on complex, general knowledge and skills can be analyzed through the simplest and most specific elements. This process can be repeated until you have identified all the basic elements of your knowledge and the skills you have developed.
Research focused on the project approach does not follow a specific sequencing principle, as novice researchers and advisers / tutors must jointly decide, as they go, which projects and activities should be carried out.
However, this approach, which does offer some general guidance in organization: sequence, should allow novice researchers to progress through the types of knowledge, skills, and attitudes that are becoming increasingly complex as they work on their investigations.
Importantly, the project approach favors an organizational development principle, in which novice researchers are given increasing responsibility as they progress through research activities. This developmentalist approach to research structuring contrasts with the more traditional emphasis on logical or disciplinary organization.
Research projects must constantly challenge increasingly advanced levels in intellectual and developmental terms. In this sense, the project approach can be said to have a spiral content configuration along developmental lines.
Bibliographic references
Dewey, J. (1971) L'école et les méthodes actives », Revue des Sciences de l'Education (Pour l'ére nouvelle), no 2, avril-juin 1971, pp. 49-57.
Martínez, M. (2004). Science and art in the qualitative methodology. Mexico. Editorial Trillas. 1st edition.
Popper, k. (1989) The logic of scientific research. Madrid. Spain. Tecnos. Seventh edition.
Schawb, J. (1969) The Practical a Language for Curriculum. School. Review. Washington.
Striker, K. and Posner, J. (1976) Epistemological. Perspectives on Conceptions of Curriculum Organization and Learning. Philadelphia.
