1. Introduction
The purpose of planning techniques is for the administrator who uses them to make the most appropriate decisions according to the most specific situation of the environment and the organization in which they act. The techniques can be used in any project. In this work we will study the most used techniques such as the following:
- Objectives and Policies Manuals Process and Flow Diagram Gantt Charts CPM (Critical Path Method)
Manuals
Manuals are one of the tools that organizations have to facilitate the development of their administrative and operational functions. They are fundamentally an instrument of communication. Objectives and Policies Manuals.
This manual is an authorized guide within the structure of a social organization, it contains a group of objectives to be achieved in the short, medium and long term, classifying them by departments, with expression of the policies corresponding to those objectives and sometimes some very rules. general guidelines that help to properly enforce policies.
Advantages of the provision and use of manuals.
They are a compendium of all the functions and procedures that are developed in an organization, elements that otherwise would be difficult to gather.
- Administrative management and decision-making are not subject to improvisations or personal criteria of the acting official at all times. Rather, they are governed by rules that maintain continuity in the process over time, they clarify the action to be followed or the responsibility to be assumed in those situations in which doubts may arise regarding which areas to act or at what level the decision or execution reaches They maintain homogeneity in the execution of administrative management and avoid the formulation of the excuse of ignorance of the current regulations. They serve to help the organization approach the fulfillment of the conditions that make up a system. They are an element whose content has been enriched over time.They facilitate control by supervisors of delegated tasks as they exist.
2. Process and Flow Diagram.
Process and flow diagrams are used to represent, analyze, improve and / or explain a procedure, they are considered as simplification tools. These diagrams show a process in such a way that each of its cases can be seen separately and allow us to see these steps graphically.
Work simplification systems, mainly those based on movement studies, were initially used in workshop work, because their application is clearer and easier. But today, with the necessary adaptations and modifications, they are widely used in administrative work; and office There is a reason for the above because, as one writer points out, the fundamental difference lies in the fact that "while materials are processed or transformed in the office in the workshop, the forms are processed or processed."
In the workshop, personnel, machinery, equipment and tools, environmental conditions, etc are taken into account; In the office, procedures, forms of documents or reports, forms of registration and statistics, personnel, space, conditions, files, equipment, supplies, etc. are considered. As can be seen, the difference is not essential but accidental, and only requires adaptation of the systems to improve these common elements. The essential steps in any process are five: operation, transport, inspection, delay and storage.
When administrative procedures are carried out there are also these same stages, since there are:
- Operations such as writing documents, making calculations, 'c registering, stamping, etc. They are represented by a circle (). Transportation such as taking a letter to a department, passing a report, taking certain forms to the file, etc. They are indicated by an arrow (). Inspections: such as reviewing accounts, analyzing a report, reviewing correspondence before signing, etc. Its symbol is (). Delays: such as letters left in the "exit tray", documents awaiting processing, etc. They are symbolized by a letter D., Storage: as documents in the archive. Its symbol is a triangle ().
The review of administrative procedures is of special importance, because, regardless of the fact that when establishing the forms of control in the initiation of operations, the reality that was going to be controlled was not well known, every organization is dynamic, and it may happen that the systems initials no longer respond to the current workload, which only hinder or hinder as well as the fact that in the effort to take specialization to its greatest degree, operations that could be together in the same person have been separated, with results of greater efficiency, speed and control. It should not be forgotten that those who least often see these defects are those who are already used to them.
It is not unnecessary to specify that the simplification instruments, such as the Process Diagram, do not replace the criteria of the administrator, since this criterion is properly the one that will think and emerge the changes that must be made, but that this criterion only fulfills the function of helping But such help is invaluable.
These instruments show a process in such a way that each of its steps can be seen separately. In addition, they allow you to graphically appreciate those steps.
With these two auxiliaries the mind can work much better, since it covers few things at a time. and for this reason it is difficult for her to make comparisons of successive steps (especially if they are numerous, difficult and abstract), to think more carefully that it can be improved, etc. Systems for simplifying office work are thus exclusively "tools to help the mind analyze processes"; the essential thing is the analysis that is done. Therefore, they are not "recipes" to correct defects or improve procedures; This is at the discretion of the supervisor and her assistants. gifted with practice and knowledge of specific needs. However, this criterion can be exploited incomparably better when you have these tools, when doing a systematic analysis on graphs,with the help of certain rules.
Process Diagram Technique
The symbols used to formulate the process diagram are those already indicated; but there is another way, with the only variant of using another way of symbolizing: the initials O - T - I - D - A, which are equivalent to Operation, Transportation, Inspection, Delay and Storage. These symbols are used to exemplify another way of representing, and, of course, easily remembered by the word "Otida."
To formulate the process diagram, the following steps must be followed:
- Make the respective sheet, which in its header will contain identification data of the process, such as its name, department, section where it starts and where it ends, date of preparation, etc. The body of this sheet consists of five columns: one for symbols, another for a brief description of the procedure, another two to note the transport distances and the minutes of delay for storage and another for observations. First of all, the description of the various steps that the process comprises, and Points are marked in the columns of the Corresponding symbols, joining them with a perceptible line.When the process is finished describing the process, the totals of operations, transports, inspections and delays are obtained, as well as the meters traveled and the time lost in storage and delay.These torals already indicate in a certain way the type of action to be taken. Thus, v.gr.. if it is noticed that the transports and storage are exaggerated on the operations or inspections, it will have to be deduced that this process can be improved. There is still a need for a more in-depth analysis, for which it is worth asking.
3. Gantt charts.
It is a diagram or bar graph that is used when it is necessary to represent the execution or total production, it shows the occurrence of activities in parallel or in series in a certain period of time.
Their purpose is to control the simultaneous execution of several activities that are carried out in coordination.
This was developed by Henry L. Gantt in 1917 and is a simple time charting tool as they are easy to learn, read and write. These are quite effective for planning and evaluating project progress.
Like PERT charts, Gantt charts are based on a graphical approach. A Gantt chart is a simple bar chart. Each bar symbolizes a project task. Where the horizontal axis represents time. Since these charts are used to chain tasks together, the horizontal axis should include dates. Vertically, and in the left column, a list of the tasks is offered.
An important advantage of Gantt charts is that they clearly illustrate the overlap between planned tasks. Unlike PERT charts, Gantt charts do not show the dependency that exists between different tasks very well.
How to use a Gantt chart for planning:
To generate a project calendar using Gantt charts, you first have to identify the tasks that need to be scheduled. Next, the duration of each task will be determined through techniques and formulas for the appropriate estimation of times. If a PERT chart has already been prepared, the tasks would have been identified and the mutual dependencies between tasks should at least be determined, since the Gantt charts do not clearly show these dependencies, but it is imperative that the planning calendar recognizes them. Then we are ready to plan tasks.
First, the list of activities is written in the left column of the Gantt chart. The dates corresponding to the duration of the project are noted on the horizontal axis of the graph. The start and end dates of each task will have to be determined, paying attention to the partial or total dependencies between tasks.
Using Gantt charts to evaluate project progress:
One of the most common responsibilities of the project manager is to report the progress of the project to his superiors. Gantt charts are often used to show project progress, as they can conveniently compare original planning with actual development. To report on the progress of the project, the convections of the Gantt chart must be expanded. If a task has been completed, its corresponding bar will appear darker. If it has only been partially completed, the proportional part of the bar will be darker. The percentage of darkened bar should correspond to the percentage of complete task. The lighter bars symbolize tasks that have not been started. Then,a vertical line will be drawn perpendicular to the horizontal axis and that will cut it on the date of the day. Then, the progress of the project can be evaluated.
4. PERT (Program Evaluation and Review Technique)
PERT was developed by scientists from the Naval Office of Special Projects. Booz, Allen and Hamilton and the Weapons Systems Division of the Lockheed Aircraft Corporation. The technique proved so useful that it has gained wide acceptance in both the government and the private sector.
In PERT charts, projects can be organized into events and tasks.
"An event (also called a milestone) is a point in time that represents the start or end of a task or a set of tasks"
To illustrate events in PERT charts, a variety of symbols have been used: circles, squares and the like. In PERT charts, these events are often called nodes. Each node is divided into three sections. The left part of the node includes the event identification number. This number usually refers to a legend that explicitly defines the event. The upper right and lower right parts of the node are used to record the maximum and minimum completion times of the event. Instead of being dates, these times are counted from TIME = 0, where 0 corresponds to the date the project starts. All PERT charts have a start node and an end node that marks the end of the project.
In a PERT chart, tasks (also called activities) are presented by an arrow between nodes.
"A task is a project activity (or a set of activities)"
The arrow includes a letter identifying the task and the expected duration of the task. The direction of the arrow indicates which event must be completed before the other. The duration of the task results in the termination of the next node.
A dashed arrow has a special meaning. It is an empty task.
An empty task represents the dependency of two events. However, as no activity has to be carried out, there is no duration between such events.
Estimation of project time requirements and preparation of a PERT.
Before drawing a graph on a PERT graph, an estimate of the time required for each project task must be made. The PERT chart can be used to indicate the maximum and minimum times for the completion of the tasks. Although these times are often expressed in person-day form, this approach is not recommended. There is no evidence that there is a linear dependency between the completion time of a project and the number of people assigned to the project team. Many systems projects that were delivered late increased their lead time deviation further as more people were added to the project team. Because two people do a job in four days, it cannot be assumed that four people do it in two days.This time is therefore best expressed in calendar days for a given number of people assigned per task.
Project time requirements should be calculated by estimate. With estimation it refers to being done as you can. A good systems analyst project manager draws on his data and experience from previous projects. There are CASE products, such as SPQR / 20, that can help project managers make better time estimates. Other organizations have implemented internal rules to calculate project time estimates in a more structured way.
These rules may mean having to analyze the tasks according to their difficulty, the necessary knowledge and techniques, and other identifiable factors. Alternatively, an optimistic estimate could be made and then adjusted using weight factors to various criteria, such as team size, the number of end users to work with, the availability of such end users, and so on. Each weight factor can both increase and decrease the value of the estimate.
Factors influencing the estimates:
- Project team size Experience of team members Number of end users and managers Attitude of end users Management commitment Availability of end users and managers Ongoing projects
To calculate the time requirements and draw a PERT chart, there are five steps:
- Make a list of all tasks and events in the project Determine dependencies between tasks. For each task, record the tasks to be completed before and after the completion of the particular task Make an estimate of the duration of each task. This estimation is carried out as follows: Calculate the minimum amount of time it would take to complete the task, which is called the optimal time (TO). Calculating TO assumes that even the most likely interruptions or delays will not occur Calculate the maximum amount of time it would take to complete the task, which is called lousy time (TP). Calculating TP assumes that everything that can go wrong will go wrong Calculate the most probable time (TMP) that will be required to perform the task.Calculate the expected duration (SD) as follows Calculate the minimum completion time and maximum completion time (TmF and TMF) for each task Draw PERT chart
An alternative procedure for obtaining PERT charts is reverse planning. This schedule schedules activities starting with a proposed completion date of a task or project and going backward to schedule the tasks that must go ahead of it.
The critical path on a PERT chart
The critical path is a sequence of dependent tasks in a project that makes up the largest sum of the estimated durations. It is the path in which there is no dead time. The dead time available for a task is equal to the difference between its maximum and minimum completion times. If these times are the same, the task belongs to the critical path. If a critical path task is delayed by its deadlines, the entire project will also be delayed.
Use of PERT for planning and control
The main use and benefits of the PERT chart stem from its ability to assist the project manager in project planning and control. In planning, the PERT chart helps to determine the estimated time required to complete a given project, obtaining actual dates for the project, and allocating the necessary resources.
As a control tool, the PERT chart helps the manager identify current and potential problems. Special attention should be paid to the critical path of a project. When a project manager detects that a critical task is running late, various alternatives for action should be considered. Corrective measures can then be taken, such as the redistribution of human resources. These resources are likely to come from noncritical tasks that are currently successful. These non-critical tasks give the project some available downtime.
Pert Analysis
The approach of using PERT charts poses a problem when applied to the development of information systems, since in these charts it is sometimes assumed that one task has to be completed for another to start, but in the real case, the latter task It could start on par with the first one or when the first one is still ongoing. Classic PERT charts were developed to support projects that were often completed using an "assembly line" approach. But information systems do not work that way. System development tasks may overlap; the only thing that must happen in order is the completion of the tasks. It should not be assumed that it is not possible to start a task until the previous one has been completed.
5. CPM (Critical Path Method)
Around the same time that PERT was created, the DuPont Company, in conjunction with the UNIVAC Division of Remington Rand, developed the Critical Path Method (CPM) to control the maintenance of DuPont chemical plant projects. CPM is identical to PERT in concept and methodology. The main difference between them is simply the method by which time estimates are made for project activities. With CPM, activity times are deterministic. With PERT, the times of the activities are probabilistic or stochastic.
The critical path method is an administrative process of planning, programming, execution and control of each and every one of the component activities of a project that must be developed within a critical time and at optimal cost.
This was designed to provide several useful pieces of information for project managers. First, PERT / CPM exposes the "critical path" of a project. These are the activities that limit the duration of the project. In other words, to get the project done early, the critical path activities must be done early. On the other hand, if an activity on the critical path is delayed, the project as a whole is delayed by the same amount. Activities that are not on the critical path have a certain amount of slack; that is, they can be started later, and allow the project as a whole to stay on schedule. The PERT / CPM identifies these activities and the amount of time available for delays.
CPM also considers the resources required to complete the activities. In many projects, limitations in manpower and equipment make scheduling difficult. The CPM identifies the moments of the project in which these restrictions will cause problems and according to the flexibility allowed by the slack times of the non-critical activities, allows the manager to manipulate certain activities to alleviate these problems.
Finally, the CPM provides a tool to control and monitor the progress of the project. Each activity has its own role in it and its importance in the completion of the project is immediately apparent to the project manager. The activities of the critical path, therefore, allow to receive most of the attention, since the completion of the project, depends heavily on them. Non-critical activities will be manipulated and replaced in response to the availability of resources.
Applications.
The field of action of this method is very wide, given its great flexibility and adaptability to any large or small project. To obtain the best results, it should be applied to projects that have the following characteristics:
- That the project is unique, non-repetitive, in some parts or in its entirety. That all or part of the project must be executed, in a minimum time, without variations, that is, in critical time. That the cost of lowest possible operation within an available time.
Within the scope of application, the method has been used for the planning and control of various activities, such as construction of dams, opening of roads, paving, construction of houses and buildings, repair of ships, market research, settlement movements, regional economic studies, audits, university career planning, distribution of operating rooms times, factory extensions, planning of itineraries for collections, sales plans, population censuses, etc., etc.
6. Differences Between PERT and CPM
As stated before, the main difference between PERT and CPM is the way the time estimates are made. E1 PERT assumes that the time to perform each of the activities is a random variable described by a probability distribution. CPM, on the other hand, infers that the times of the activities are known in a deterministic way and can be varied by changing the level of resources used.
7. Bibliography
- CHIAVENATO, Idalberto. «Introduction to the general theory of the Administration». Ed. Mc Graw Hill.HERNÁNDEZ, Sergio and RODRÍGUEZ. "Introduction to administration". Ed. Mc. Graw Hill.JAMES STONER, A. «Administration». Ed. Prentice Hall.KOONTZ, Harold. "Administration. A Global Perspective ». Ed. Mc. Graw Hill.MUNCH GALINDO, Lourdes. "Fundamentals of Administration". Ed. Trillas.REYES PONCE, Agustín. "Modern Administration". Ed. Limusa.http: //www.itlp.edu.mx/publica/tutoriales/procesoadmvo/tema2_11.htm. Technological Institute of La Paz. Mexico.http: //www.monografias.com/
