Ambitious is the task when trying to address the issue of organizations and administration in a comprehensive way, without reductionism and comprehensive, where a lot of ink has already run and which we use to make our monograph but,… without leaving aside the utopia that although it is impossible by definition, it represents in us a necessary tool so that an administration and an organization can see and criticize itself as an imperfect order and it leads us to believe that we can hope for a better organization and better administration.
In our work, what we did was develop What is administration? Its evolution. His CARACTERISTICS. His theories. Its problem in terms of whether the administration is: Science, technique, art? A theme that we chose to make the presentation of this monograph through a dramatization, embodying and making science, technique and art dialogue, and it is in This topic where we put a quota of autobiography of the members of the team, it is in the final conclusion using the bibliography provided by the chair of the authors Valladares Rivera and Kliksberg.
Then we go on to detail, What is the object of study of the administration ?. His method of study and this led us to the theme of the organization and we exposed its concept, characteristics, elements that make up the organization, public, private and mixed organizations, their concepts, their differences and their similarities. Their typologies of organizations. Management style of organizations legal forms of organizations, then we elaborate on the situation in Latin America on administration and organization.
In this dynamic circuit of the evolution of organizations and administration we have accomplished the task of developing the topics, classifying and ordering them, to which we want to invite our readers to develop our work.
We appreciate the collaboration of our teachers and that of our classmates to listen to our presentation and their participation.
«Art has a curative function in
human experience, by revealing, as
in a blaze, the absolute truth
and intimate on the nature of
things"
Whitehead
Brief overview of the evolution of the administration
The current administrative conceptions are the result of a process started at the very dawn of humanity and that has been evolving and acquiring its own profiles through different periods and stages.
Said administrative process began as an obligatory event when two individuals had to coordinate their efforts to do something that neither of them could do on their own, and it evolved into a prior and carefully planned and rational act that allows achieving objectives with the least amount of effort. possible and with the greatest satisfactions for individuals.
The historical study of this administrative evolution shows us the approaches that this science had in Egypt, China, Greece and Rome, and the influence that certain procedures used in those places had on some current practices in the field, among them the functional organization of the powers of the State.
The knowledge of the organization of the Roman Catholic Apostolic Church is also very interesting to know the importance of indoctrination in administration for the pursuit of an objective, despite the fact that the structures and procedures may not satisfy all the administrative theoretical principles.
A better understanding is acquired of the transformation that the science of administration had; she comes to consolidate in the Contemporary Age with the valuable studies of Woodrow Wilson.
The theories and experiences of Henri Fayol and Frederick Taylor marked a new stage in the evolution of this science and Scientific Administration, which they postulated and their disciples continued, becomes one of the most effective means for the technification of nascent industries in the present century; This modernization has also greatly influenced the economic development and improvement of many countries due to its application in the public sector.
Old Administration
Despite the fact that administration as a discipline is relatively new, the history of administrative thought is very old, since it was born with the man himself, since at all times there has been a need to coordinate activities, make decisions and execute, hence that many of the administrative foundations of today are found in the ancient administration and that can be observed in the code of Hammurabi, in the new testament, as well as in the way of conducting affairs in ancient Greece, Egypt, Rome and China, where vestiges of the administrative process are found.
The ecclesia was the organism with the highest authority that existed in Greece and all citizens were part of it; decisions were taken by majority vote and they were irrevocable.
In Greece, the emperor Pericles, 430 years before Christ, testified to the need for a proper selection of personnel and made an analysis of Greek democracy.
In Egypt there was a comprehensive administrative system with a planned economy and a central government of great power, based on force and compulsion. Here the first civil service system was created.
The German sociologist Max Weber made a study on the ancient administration of Egypt, concluding that definite and systematic procedures were applied and a bureaucratic administrative system was used.
In China the philosopher Confucius provided a series of rules for public administration.
In Rome that lived two periods, the Republic and the Roman Empire, being in the latter where administrative transformations took place.
The administration of the Roman Empire was characterized by centralization.
Middle Ages Administration
During the last years of the Roman Empire, Administrative centralism weakened considerably and the royal authority passed to the landowner, around whom many people were grouped, that is, in the Middle Ages there was a decentralization of the government, which was different from the administrative forms that had existed previously. There was a notable evolution of administrative ideas and institutions such as the Catholic Church were consolidated, which had a lot of interest for the studies of administration, due to its peculiar form of organization and operation.
At this time the administration receives a great boost when they arise in Italy, the fundamentals of modern accounting and commercial transactions begin to rationalize when in 1340 Lucas Pacioli establishes the double entry method of accounting, Francisco Di Marco (1395) and Barbariego (1418), use accounting practices denostó and the Soranzo brothers (1410), make use of the daily book and the major.
Modern Age Administration
At the beginning of this time, an administrative movement known as cameralists arose in Prussia Austria that reached its greatest splendor in 1560 and tried to improve the administrative systems used at that time. They put emphasis on the development of some administrative principles, such as the selection and training of personnel, specialization of functions and the establishment of administrative controls.
In 1776 Adam Smith, considered the father of classical economics, publishes his work The Wealth of Nations, in which the doctrine of Laissez-Faire (letting go, letting pass) appears, which served as the philosophical basis for the industrial revolution and that it has had its application in the administration and in the economy; he announced the principle of the division of labor, considering it necessary for specialization and for increased production.
Administration Contemporary Age
Historians agree that there was a second industrial revolution from 1860 to 1914, also called the steel and electricity revolution, which replaced iron with steel as the basic material for industry in the field of energy.
Taylor's scientific management that emerged at this time fully fulfilled that function, providing the tools and techniques necessary for its expansion and development.
FREDERICK TAYLOR: He was one of the main exponents of scientism, he was born in Philadelphia in the year 1856 and died in 1915. He joined a company that manufactured steel ingots at the time of depreciation in the United States as a worker. and then going through the other levels he reached the highest position. This allowed him to realize the affectations that the workers made to the machines.
Among his main contributions to the administration are the administrative principles, the administration mechanisms, the piece-rate payment, the selection of personnel and the characteristics of human jobs.
ADMINISTRATIVE PRINCIPLES:
1.- Study of times and movements
2.- Selection of workers
3.- Shared responsibility
4.- Application to the administration.
ADMINISTRATIVE MECHANISMS:
- Study of times and movements
2. Functional supervision
3. Production systems or departments
4. Principle of the exception
5. Enrollment cards
6. Use of the calculation rule
7. Standardization of instruction cards
8. Bonus of credit cards instruction
9. Study of production routes
10. Production classification system
11. Production cost.
CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMAN WORK:
Discover that there is no totally effective system.
The position held by the worker does not always go according to their abilities.
That there are no incentives.
That decisions are made at the highest levels.
That the administration consists of principles applicable to all companies.
LIMITATIONS:
His contributions were very important for the administration, but he also had many criticisms; The American Labor Federation considered him a diabolical being, because the jobs of the people under his system were repetitive and mechanical, another very big criticism was the one he received for abusing the term science. But it must also be considered that it influences their studies and results in Germany, England, Italy and the United States, because by taking their timed studies to companies, they achieve high productivity.
Henry fayol
Main contributions and limitations
Henry Fayol was born in France in 1841 and died in 1925, he started working as general manager of a coal mining company that was in bankruptcy, after 25 years it was considered one of the most important companies in the world. world level.
Contributions:
1.-Universality of the Administration: It shows that it is an activity common to all organizations: Home, business, government, indicating that whenever there is an organization whatever its type there must be administration.
2.-Functional areas: For Fayol, there must be six functional areas within the company:
1) Technical: In charge of production
2) Commercial: In charge of buying and selling
3) Financial: In charge of the use of capital
4) Accountant: In charge of inventories, balances and costs
5) Security: In charge of protecting assets of the company and the employee
6) Administrative: It is in charge of using resources properly.
3.- Model of the administrative process: For Fayol, certain stages must exist within the company to be able to develop any type of work, within them we find:
1) Forecast. (examine the future)
2) Organization. (formulate structure)
3) Address. (Make the plans work)
4) Coordination. (Harmonize information)
5) Control. (Check the results)
4.-Administrative principles: There are fourteen:
COMMAND UNIT: A single person must command all subordinates.
2. AUTHORITY: Every company must have a person to direct them.
3. UNIT OF DIRECTION: A program for each activity.
4.CENTRALIZATION: All activities must be managed by a single person. NOTE: Currently we find that due to the structures this is not very functional for companies.
5.SOBORDINATION OF THE PARTICULAR INTEREST TO THE GENERAL: It should seek to benefit the majority.
6. DISCIPLINE: Discipline must be achieved for the proper functioning of the company.
7. DIVISION OF WORK: Each person must be told the work to be done.
8.ORDER: Everything in its place and a place for everything.
9. HIERARCHY: The authority of each hierarchical level must be respected.
10. FAIR REMUNERATION: Fair payment according to the work done.
11. EQUITY: The benefits must be shared; company-workers.
12. STABILITY: The employee must feel secure in his work.
13. INITIATIVE: The employee must be allowed to determine how things should be done.
14 GROUP SPIRIT: Everyone must collaborate with each other.
5.- Administrator profile:
1) Physical qualities
2) Moral qualities
3) Intellectual qualities
4) General knowledge
5) Specific knowledge
6) Experience
6.-Importance of administration
Fayol determines that any activity carried out must be based on administration, so in his administrative studies he proposes that they should be given from primary school.
Limitations
Fayol was a prominent author of his time, his contributions were recognized some time later and currently all companies work under them, so a company cannot be conceived without a process and a division of functions or that does not work under administrative principles, etc.
One of his limitations was that he used theory more than practice in his work.
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS BETWEEN FAYOL AND TAYLOR
The two focus their studies on the same problem but with different points of view.
Taylor studies his studies from the worker level to the management level and Fayol does it in the opposite direction.
Taylor conducts her studies based on time and movement and selection of personnel, Fayol pays more attention to administrative tasks.
Taylor is practical, Fayol is theoretical.
Taylor's studies had immediate application, Fayol's was slow to recognize them.
Scientific management emerged during the second industrial revolution, its most prominent precursors are:
Charles Babbage He
is not only considered a precursor of scientific administrative thought, but also that of the computer, since in 1822 he manufactured a mechanical calculating machine that served as a guide for the invention of modern computers.
Henry R. Towne
In 1886, before the North American Society of Mechanical Engineers, he delivered a conference entitled The Engineer as an Economist, among the attendees was Frederick Taylor, in which it was requested that the administration be considered as a science. He devised a profit-sharing plan as a salary payment system.
Henry Metacalfe
distinguished himself by introducing new administrative control techniques and devised a good control system. Later Metacalfe was considered by Taylor as a very efficient person. He published a book entitled The Cost of Production and the Administration of Public and Private Workshops, considered as a precursor work of scientific administration.
Woodrow Wilson
Wrote a study on public administration, it is the most famous and discussed article on the science of administration that has ever been written in America. Wilson made a separation between politics and administration and gave the name of science to administration.
Administration concept:
We are going to cite different authors and they are:
Kliksberg: »Administration is a set of knowledge referring to organizations made up of notions related to the scientific explanation of their behavior and notions related to their driving technology.
Valladares Román: »Administration is the process to achieve positive results through an adequate use of available resources and the collaboration of the efforts of others»
Koontz and O¨Donnell: "Administration is defined as the creation or conservation in a company, of an environment where individuals, working in groups, can perform effectively and efficiently, to achieve their common goals."
Henry Sisk and Mario Suerdlik: «It is the coordination of all resources through the Planning, direction and control Process, in order to achieve established objectives».
Barcos Santiago: "Administration as a scientific discipline constitutes a system of knowledge, methodically based, whose object of study are organizations and administration - in the sense of conduction, process, resource management, etc. - of these"
Concept elements
According to Valladares Rivera says that: «If the definitions are carefully analyzed, it is observed that all the authors agree, in one way or another, that the concept of administration is made up of the following elements:
- Objective: The administration is always focused on achieving ends or results Efficiency: The administration not only seeks to achieve results, but optimizes them by taking advantage of all resources Social Group: For the administration to exist it is necessary that it always occurs within a social group. Collaboration of the effort of others: The administration appears precisely when it is necessary to achieve certain results through the collaboration of other people. Coordination of resources: To manage, it is necessary to combine, systematize and analyze the different resources that intervene in the achievement of a common purpose ».
characteristics
The administration applies in all types of corporation.
It is applicable to managers at all levels of a corporation.
Management is concerned with performance; This implies efficiency and effectiveness.
Administrative Theories And Their Approaches
| Administrative theories | Main approaches | Emphasis |
| Scientific Administration | Rationalization of work at the operational level | On homework |
| Classical Theory | Formal Organization | In the structure |
| Neoclassical Theory | General principles of administration, administrator functions, formal organization |
In the structure |
| Bureaucracy Theory | Bureaucratic, organizational rationality | In the structure |
| Theory of human relations | Formal and informal organization, motivation, leadership, communications and group dynamics. |
In people |
| Organizational behavior theory | Management styles, decision theory, integration of organizational and individual objectives. |
In people |
| Organizational development theory | Planned organizational change, open system approach. |
In people |
| Structuralist theory | Intraorganizational analysis and environmental analysis, open system approach. |
In the environment |
| Contingency theory | Technology management | In the technology |
The Administration… Science, Technology or Art? or Profession? »
We believe after a reading on the subject regarding the doubt about whether the administration is: science, art or technology obeys to an insufficiency in its degree of epistemological categorization, given that there is a lack of knowledge of the field in which the administration is found.
We go on to write the characteristics and elements that make up a science, a technique and an art, according to Valladares Rivera, who has a position that administration is art and then we will quote Kliksberg who has a scientistic thinking and does not believe that administration be an art.
Science:
Definition: A set of ordered and systematized knowledge, of universal validity, based on a theory referring to general truths.
Object: Knowledge of the world search for the truth.
Method: Research. Observation. Experimentation. Survey.
Foundation: General laws. Beginning.
Technique:
Definition: Set of instruments, rules, procedures and knowledge, whose purpose is the utilitarian application.
Purpose: Application or practical utility
Method: Instruments. Procedures Scientific knowledge.
Background: Principle and rules of practical application.
Art:
Definition: Set of techniques and theories, whose purpose is to cause aesthetic pleasure through the senses. It is also said of virtue, ability or disposition to do something well.
Object: Beauty. Expression Skill.
Method: Techniques. Theories. Emotionality. Creativity.
Rationale: Rules.
According to Valladares Rivera “Management is undoubtedly an art and that the artistic application of knowledge will continue to be perhaps the greatest skill of a manager. Although the state of science in management can be called inaccurate, it is also a science although not in the broad sense of the physical or natural sciences.
Regarding the profession, he tells us: «… we cannot say that technically that the administration is a profession, according to the established criteria, although without a doubt its professionalism and therefore its acceptance, will increase in the future. The degree of advancement of progress toward professionalization will depend on the adoption of the scientific or systems approach to management, as well as organizational theory, clarification of business purposes, the degree to which managers and organizations participate in the systems of which they are part and the convenience of professionalism among managers.
Kliksberg to the question What is a science? He gives us the following explanation:
Science: it is an attitude of knowing, of investigating, of looking for the reason for something. By nature science means understanding and explanation of reality. The scientist presupposes that reality exists in such a way that it is understandable and explicable at the level of the categories of human reasoning.
Science does not create things or objects, on the contrary things and objects are there and science only seeks to know them, explain them and predict their behavior.
This explanatory level contains several dimensions: the discovery of the object, its explanation at a functional level, its history, its birth and evolution and dynamics that will become. The three dimensions of science are the following: History or evolutionary. The present or current. The predictive or future.
The dimensions overlap on two scientific fields: that of scientific explanation and that of evaluation.
Now we turn to the concept of technique to analyze the degree of relationship that exists between both terms.
The technique is a complement to science, its objective is the operation of reality or its transformation, through rules or procedures that are exercised on the reality of objects.
The technique tries to obtain certain modifications in things, or certain behavior of individuals.
The relationship is clear. Science explains a certain reality. The technique intends to transform it, but it can only operate on it efficiently if it starts from the understanding of its nature, operating dynamics, and interrelationships. Technical knowledge is structured, based on scientific knowledge.
What remains to be explained is Art, art does not seek explanations or understanding like science, nor does it seek transformation or operability.
Kliksberg tells us:
«Artistic activity tries to transcend the level of mere utilization in the relationship of man with men and with the environment. It tries to reach the essences, and to rescue the beauty and the feeling ».
«Like scientific activity, artistic activity does not transform reality in itself. But he is not limited, except in mechanical forms of art, to copying it. The artist interprets reality through concrete subjectivity, and with it adds the trait of originality. His activity obtains essences of things impregnated by the notes of his subjectivity ».
Making a synthesis; on the ubiquity of the administration problem, Kleisberg writes to us; that he finds two most relevant types of problem and they are the problems caused by simple semantic confusions, and problems linked to errors of concept, although he gives many terminological and conceptual examples of inefficiency on bibliography with respect to administration, he concludes by defining the administration as… "a set of knowledge referring to organizations made up of notions related to the scientific explanation of their behavior, and notions related to their driving technology", and completed the previous definition by conceptualizing organizations as social institutions; Its center is a system of activities in charge of the components of the organization that is characterized by its conscious coordination,rationalizes and set expectations of reciprocal behavior; The set of relationships between the activities of the organization, constitute its structure, which is stable over time, they have towards certain ends, whose fixation process varies as well as the degree of cooperation of its members with them, according to the type of organization and have a permanent interaction relationship with the environment. Taking into account the content of the administration and the characteristics of the phenomenon that it deals with: «organizations», and applying to the case the characterizations of scientific, technical and artistic knowledge, formulated, it can be concluded that:whose fixation process varies as well as the degree of cooperation of its members with them, according to the type of organization and they have a permanent interaction relationship with the environment. Taking into account the content of the administration and the characteristics of the phenomenon that it deals with: «organizations», and applying to the case the characterizations of scientific, technical and artistic knowledge, formulated, it can be concluded that:whose fixation process varies as well as the degree of cooperation of its members with them, according to the type of organization and they have a permanent interaction relationship with the environment. Taking into account the content of the administration and the characteristics of the phenomenon that it deals with: «organizations», and applying to the case the characterizations of scientific, technical and artistic knowledge, formulated, it can be concluded that:it can be concluded that:it can be concluded that:
- there is the possibility of a scientific knowledge of organizations, that is, of structuring a science of administration. Said science would start from a premise: organizations, like all other phenomena in the natural and social world, channel their behavior within certain regularities and the explanation of said regularities, their mode of presentation, and their dynamics would be proposed. It would tend to create explanatory theories of the behavior of the organization applicable in the dimension of retrodiction, actuality and prediction. He would also use the scientific method to develop his studies, more in keeping with the characteristics of the organizational phenomenon.
- There is also the possibility of technical knowledge of the institutions, that is, of an administrative technology. The management techniques should be based on the conclusions regarding the organization phenomenon, described in the previous point, reached by scientific knowledge, and their objective would be to guide the global behavior of organizations and that of each of their areas and components, towards the desired objectives. The techniques would be integrated with bodies of norms, conformed at the level of the different types of problems of the organization. The characteristics of artistic knowledge are not related to the content of the administration. The administration does not involve an attitude of a spiritual nature, developed by intuitive-experiential methods, nor is its object already artistic creation.The mistakes made by various authors when assigning the qualification of art, are due to linguistic or conceptual ignorance of the differences that it has with artistic knowledge.
STUDY METHOD
The establishment and use of methods is becoming increasingly necessary for the administration, in order to avoid the dispersion and waste of resources.
A good method leads to the most effective use of individuals, resources and equipment.
The nature of the problem, the quality of the production factors and the complexity of the object are elements that condition the method to be used.
In general, all the methods proposed by the different philosophical currents have applicability and have been used by the administration.
In his study both induction (from experience) and deduction (from reason) and the phenomenological method (which seeks to describe the essence of objects through intuition) are valid.
At the time we specified that the knowledge related to the administration had two levels of expression, the scientific level whose purpose was the explanation of the organizations and the technological level that implied the development of procedures applicable to the management of the organizations.
The history of science registers four major stages in the evolution of the scientific method, they are: the empirical, demonstrative, axiomatic and hypothetical deductive method.
The hypothetical method is the most suitable for the development of scientific knowledge of organizations. The administration to consist of a set of explanatory theories of the behavior of organizations. These theories must be made up of hypotheses at different levels, and if there is a constant process of hypothesis testing. The hypothetical deductive method allows satisfying these conditions, since it especially highlights the role of Counterfeiting (constant testing of hypotheses).
The pattern of application of the hypothetical deductive method would be formed with these stages in the case of administration.
1 Obtaining significant data or observations in everything related to organizations.
2 The formulation of initial hypotheses, the deduction of successive hypotheses and the definitive elaboration of explanatory theories of organizational behavior.
3 The continuous confrontation of the hypotheses proposed in the concrete behavior of the ORGANIZATIONS.
4 The connection of the knowledge obtained with the hypotheses made with respect to organizations from other approaches.
OBJECT OF STUDY
The object of study of the administration are: organizations, their management, management techniques, transformation and adaptation of organizations, the theory of organization and administration.
CONCEPT OF ORGANIZATIONS.
The analysis of the concepts and the object of the administration then leads us to make an approach to the knowledge of the entities (organizations) within which the activities of human beings take place.
The first organizations were the family and small nomadic tribes; then permanent villages and tribal communities were established. Later the feudal system and nations were created. This evolution of organizations has accelerated more and more, producing abysmal changes in this field. Society was transformed from a predominantly agrarian form, where the family, small informal groups and small communities were important, to an industrial one, characterized by the emergence of large formal organizations, finding ourselves today in this century in the era of the services.
In other words, groups and organizations have always been an important part of our existence.
Although we can find a multiplicity of definitions regarding organizations, to facilitate this task we can refer to the different perspectives, conceptions or optics of the different authors who have defined them, taking into account the scientific paradigm to which each author belonged at the time. to define them.
For this reason we can take the distinction that Santiago Barcos has made, according to which such conceptions or optics from which various authors analyze them can be classified as:
1 Organizations conceived as instruments;
2 Organizations conceived as scenarios of social interaction;
3 Organizations conceived as living systems.
1 Organizations are explained and described as mechanical objects or instruments designed from the outside to achieve certain ends and objectives. The authors who postulate this conception emphasize the formal structure, explain them by their purposes and by their limited rationality. Most of the works of Taylor, Weber, Simon, etc., respond to this conception.
A definition that makes this conception is Etzioni's when expressing that «Organizations are instruments; they have been created to serve one or more specific purposes "(this does not mean that the author conceives them as an instrument only, also for Etzioni the organization is a living system).
2 As a place where individuals and groups modify each other (interaction scenarios), organizations cannot be explained through their objectives because these emerge from interactions, as well as the internal norms that regulate them. In this conception they can be seen from a set of individual and group behaviors, or from a role of social actor; as institutions, as culture and as historical products. In other words, in this approach we can distinguish in turn (following Dunlop and Gore) three approaches.
- The first is focused on the search for a legality for the conduct of individuals and groups, where understanding the organization implies understanding the personal characteristics of the individuals that form them and the way in which they relate to each other (schools of human relations, Mayo, Maslow, Lippit, etc.).
- The second is the so-called institutional school where legality is not a product of psychological factors, but a historical product that depends on interaction with the environment. What is relevant can be explained by the real decisions made by real actors. Leadership; Motivation; Communication; etc, lack sense isolated from the context, the authors and the personal, political and structural factors that make up the institution (Michels, Clarck, etc.) The third approach refers to the organization as culture, a real field of social interaction, where human behavior is partially prescribed by collectively created and sustained forms of life. Organizations are historical products; to understand them is to understand a cultural system and, like this one, conditions the actions of its members (Morgan, Scott, etc.).
3 Considering the functioning of organizations, relations with the environment and the concepts coming from the general theory of systems, some authors explain them and even define them as living systems. At this point we believe it is pertinent to first define what a system is: an organized and unitary whole composed of two or more interdependent parts, components or subsystems and delineated by identifiable limits that separate them from their environmental suprasystem.
Dunlop and Gore here also identify three groups of conceptions:
- Those that treat organizations as organisms trying to adapt to a given environment and are governed by norms imposed by adaptive effort (Lorsch, Kast, Rosenzweig, etc.)
- Those that consider different classes of organizations as species of selection by the environment that grow or decline according to ecological laws
(Dunn, Aldrich, etc.)
- Those who consider organizations as a system of relationships that share similar characteristics with living systems, also defined as a system of relationships. This perspective is based on cybernetics, where organizations are a kind of category capable of encompassing systems
(Ackoff, Miller, etc.)
Next we will see some definitions of this conception in general:
* Kast and Rosenzweig: «The notion of interrelation presupposes a social system. Therefore, it can be said that organizations are oriented to certain objectives and goals (people with a purpose), they are psychosocial systems (people who worked in groups), they are technological systems (people who use knowledge and techniques), and it implies the integration of structural activities (people working together) ».
* Ackoff: "The organization is a system with some purpose, which is part of a larger system that understands it and that in some of the parts (people) have their own purposes."
There are countless concepts but we can find common characteristics in all of them:
1 The behavior of organizations is oriented towards goals and ends that group members know in some way.
2 They use knowledge and techniques to achieve their tasks.
3 They involve structural and integrated activities, that is, individuals who work together or cooperate in relationships of interdependence.
4 They are not isolated, the external environment (technological, social, political, legal, economic and ethical) influences them, as they influence the environment. The basis for legitimizing an organization or a social system is that there is a common ideology.
To conclude this topic we can say that always within a scientific paradigm there is an accepted definition and this is that of Talcott Pasons cited by Etzioni: «Organizations are social units (or human groupings) deliberately built or reconstructed to achieve specific ends. Corporations, armies, schools, hospitals, churches and prisons are among them tribes, classes, ethnic groups, groups of friends and relatives are excluded from the concept ”(the latter are excluded because they arise by chance or chance or by a scheme traditional type of relationships).
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ORGANIZATION
With regard to the characteristics of organizations, we can find three different conceptions, which does not mean that we find certain similarities in it: Weber, Etzioni (this being the one with the highest acceptance today) and Solana.
According to Etzioni, organizations are mainly characterized by:
1 Division of labor, power and responsibility.
These divisions have been deliberately planned to achieve certain ends.
- a) T he division of labor is verified in the existence of different areas to which various functions are assigned, for which they carry out different activities. For example, personnel management or marketing management. Both managements are subdivided into smaller areas generally called departments: recruitment, selection, control, sales, market research.
Departments can also be further subdivided down to the level of the task performed by each worker at their job.
- b) The division of power is verified in the fact that all members of an organization do not have the same power and in the existence of hierarchical levels of formal authority. For example, the recruitment department head reports to the personnel manager.
At higher levels, power and authority are concentrated.
- c) The division of responsibility in communications is a consequence of the divisions of labor and power in such a way, each level of the structure will have certain types of messages and information in which it acts as a sender, channel or receiver.
2 The presence of one or more centers of power.
That is, a subgroup of people within the aforementioned social unit that controls the concerted efforts in the organization, directs such effort towards the ends, conforms to the structure and work processes, and reviews or remodels them to increase efficiency.
3 Replacement of personnel.
People who do not meet what you expect of her can be replaced, and their tasks, assigned to other people. Organizations can change the personnel who occupy the various jobs, also transferring or promoting them to others, for example, a worker can be promoted from head of a certain section to the management to which that department belongs.
ELEMENTS THAT MAKE UP THE ORGANIZATION
Carlos Eduardo Martínez Fajardo says that, in a universal way, it can be identified:
1 The management system: this refers to the application of the administrative process in the effective production of productions, includes the basic functions of managers, consists of the application of concepts, criteria and techniques of planning, organization, direction, evaluation of subsystem of marketing, finance, suppliers, customer service, leadership of human talent, according to changing demands of the environment.
"The administrative process includes the power relations of the management, for this reason and due to the technical nature in our language the basic functions of management are selected and formed in the acronym POWER."
Planning: strategically and operationally.
Organize: design and redesign the structure.
D ecide the execution of activities and direct human talent.
E valuate and control effective results.
R eprogram and report through an information system.
In the Organizational Effectiveness Evaluation System, this approach to the analysis of administrative capacity is applied in each of the following selected strategy variables:
- Human work capacity and potential.
- Current and potential efficiency of capital Current and potential physical resource efficiency Productivity, quality and capacity for current and potential technological innovation Efficiency in the interaction with external strategic variables: marketing, customers, competitors, sales.
2 Objectives and results: the objectives are the ends the results are the realizations of those desired objectives. In this sense, organizations have a teleological nature that forces them to foresee, formally or informally, in advance, the expected final result of their action.
The dynamics of the global social structure to which organizations belong establishes goals as a consequence of power relations, for example, between the government, businessmen, unions, which conditions their behavior and contributes to defining the internal objectives of the organization. organization. The process of formulating objectives is dynamic and varies according to the type of organization, it leads to the power struggle and the confrontation of interests of the various groups and individuals in interaction.
Types of objectives:
A productivity is a main objective.
B Depending on the nature of the organization, we can identify profit or non-profit objectives.
C Depending on the scope in time, there are strategic or long-term and tactical or short-term objectives.
D In agreement with the participants involved, we can establish individual, group, subgroup, managerial, employee, client or consumer objectives.
E According to the areas of activity of the organizations, production, marketing, personnel and financial objectives must be established.
F By the degree of efficiency: quantity, quality, costs, prices and benefits.
G By the degree of effectiveness: productivity, efficiency and social impact.
3 Internal formal structure: includes:
- a hierarchical structure of authority and work relationships among the people who make up the organization.
- The division, specialization and standardization of work. The hierarchical structure and the rules of formal behavior are defined through regulations or statutes that are legally approved, in accordance with the legal structure.
The set of authority relationships determine a formal hierarchical structure composed of the following elements:
- * Relations of authority or power.
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- * Work relationships: functions at the position level, activities of the organizational units, individual tasks * Flow of information and communication.
* Authority: it is legitimized power, it is the coercive capacity to give orders and the power mechanisms to enforce orders.
Types of authority:
* Formal: according to Weber consists in the legitimately established rational authority, this is made legitimate by acceptance, by consensus and formalization through the rules, of the statutes.
* Technical or functional: refers to the power derived from specialized knowledge in a given area.
* Informal: is the power that appears spontaneously by the relationship between two or more people and the possibility of one of them to influence the action of the other.
4 Resources:
The means or factors that organizations use in their production process can be classified into:
* Humans: People provide the labor force, the intellectual and physical workforce, the human capital that organizations require.
Due to its location within the internal structure, human resources are classified as:
* Management staff, and
* Managed staff.
The administrative study of this factor has given rise to a priority area to support production, which is Personnel Administration, Industrial Relations or Human Resources Management, which includes the functions of selection, evaluation, training, talent development, compensation., withdrawal, etc…
Human work can rely on brain, muscles, limbs, methods, tools and machines.
It is a complex factor as it encompasses multiple dimensions:
* Technique: requires specialized knowledge and work.
* Economic: the work is oriented to the rational production of goods and services and generates a salary or consideration.
* Psychological: a mental behavior or attitude, a state of satisfaction or dissatisfaction, is derived from work, collectively determined by the motivational climate of the organization.
* Physiology: work causes wear, fatigue and physical consequence in the long term, therefore it is necessary to study repetitive movements and positions in the normal working day of the worker. You can classify individual work, tasks and functions at the position level, and group work coordinated activities.
At this point Santiago Barcos also mentions as an active part of the organization the owners, shareholders or partners depending on the legal form that the organization adopts; and adds that the number of full-time staff working in the same organization is the most common indicator to measure its size. Non-permanent members are not generally considered when measuring the size of it. Non-permanent limbs are not generally considered when measuring size. On the other hand, it understands that there are organizations that provide services to certain people, who are temporarily admitted to act on them, that is, people are elements to be processed. Examples of these are hospitals that act on patients, universities on students. In these cases,the people referred to are considered part of the market served by the organization, but not human resources of the same. Customers, competitors and suppliers are also linked to the organization, but they are not considered elements of it either, except for the clarification made above.
* Financial: It constitutes the total investment capacity of the organization, its assets, its goods and negotiable rights, its debt capacity, the analysis of financial behavior.
Financial management has developed a set of concepts and techniques applicable in the programming and evaluation of the return on invested capital in the short, medium and long term. The most used in the analysis of financial behavior are:
*Breakeven.
* Origin of sources or application of funds.
* Budgets.
* Performance sensitivity indices.
* Du Pont financial control system (relates the activity reasons and the profit margin on sales).
The analysis of the minimum financial information of the organization originates in the income and expenses statement-profit and loss statement and in the general balance sheet that in modern organizations is carried out through a fully systematized accounting information process.
* Physical: They are the factors or material means that organizations use for production, for example, machines, tools, materials, facilities, vehicles, buildings, etc.
Santiago Barcos calls these resources "materials" and includes financial resources as a special category. It distinguishes these resources from natural and energy resources, earth, water, sunlight, etc., energy in all its manifestations, and fuels. The latter differ from the former because, in general, the organization does not own the latter.
* Technological or technological capacity: it is a set of instruments and methods that each organization creates, adapts and applies in its production processes.
It is classified in:
* Hardware, or hard or physical technology, referring to machines and tools.
* Software, or soft technology, referring to technical knowledge of methods, procedures, manuals, patents, plans, graphics, technical assistance applied to production.
* Managerial or administrative technology, referring to the set of management techniques.
On this resource, Santiago Barcos thinks that: «technology turns spontaneous and thoughtless behavior into deliberate and rationalized behavior».
* Ideas, knowledge and information: this implies the resources that originate the intellect of man and the scientific and technological advance key to the development and evolution of organizations. Information is defined as the knowledge that is required and used to make decisions and thus allow the achievement of defined objectives or goals. Through information, knowledge and intelligence are communicated.
* Name, prestige, symbols and brands, etc.: The name, the image or the prestige, the symbols, are the visible face of the organization in the environment in which they are inserted.
A symbol is the currency, the figure, the emblem, the graphic, etc., that serves to represent, materially or by word, a moral or intellectual concept due to the affinity or relationship that exists or that is generated by dint of reiteration between this concept and that figure. Organizations use acronyms, logos, as identification or representation of the same.
The image is the living and effective representation of a thing through language, in oral, written, visual, auditory communications, etc. Organizations need to generate an image in society, it is generated in our mind because we apprehend similarity and symbolic representation.
The organization takes care of its name through its actions in the society of its trajectory, its behavior in the face of certain contingencies, and the images that they generate acquire prestige, fame or social relevance. Prestige represents the opinion that people have of the organization, as a kind of public voice referring to the excellence of the entity and the reliability of its actions. Having a good reputation is the key to organizational survival.
5 External structure or interaction with the environment:
The conditions of the global social, economic, political, ethical, technological structure, etc., determine the eternal variables or the context with which the administration of organizations must interact dynamically. The environment changes permanently, these changes are evaluated through the behavior and projection of a series of variables not directly controllable by management, but with which it must interact. An example of them are government policies, the availability of resources, culture, etc.
CHARACTERISTICS AND DEFINITIONS:
The emergence and development of all kinds of organisms, as well as the multiplicity of relationships between them, have given rise to the existence of different types of administration that sometimes make their classification confusing. However, the most common classification is the one that attends to the economic sector it serves, that is, according to whether the body is public, private or has characteristics of both sectors.
Three fundamental types of administration are distinguished: public, private and mixed administration.
Public administration:
It is the execution and observance of government policy, as it has been outlined for competent authorities, and therefore, it concerns the problems, powers, organization and techniques implicit in the laws and policies formulated by government agencies in charge of they. The public administration is the law in action: it is the executive part of the government.
Consequently, it means primarily the work of the civil companies that it is in charge of, by legal mandate, to process the public works assigned to them. However, public business can cover different political spheres and in this way public administration can be international or national in nature; it can be federal or central, state or departmental, municipal or urban. It can also encompass legislative-type activities, since there is a lot of administration in the making of laws. It thus covers the functions of the courts in their role as administrators of justice; to civil and military offices that depend directly or not on the executive, etc. In this way, public administration can be from the executive branch, the legislative branch, the judicial branch,of the military branch, etc.
Regarding the specific activity of the application, it could, in turn, refer to personnel, budget, materials, financial management, etc.
The administration concentrates its study on those aspects of organization, procedures and method that are common to most administrative offices. The application of the body of knowledge of this discipline to any special function such as health can lead us from the municipal level to the state, to the national and even to the international level. It can have the same problems in different areas, such as health, education or communications, or it can go from a governmental function such as the arrest and detention of a criminal, to a quasi-governmental or quasi-commercial one, such as servicing a power plant.
Private administration:
It concerns the activities of individuals and in all their orders and is, therefore, also very broad. Industry is the most obvious illustration of private administration, but we also find it highly developed in ecclesiastical organizations, schools and private charities.
It can be, of an international nature, such as certain societies of a cultural, political and social nature, and consortia and cartels that go beyond the borders of a country. It can also be national, regional or local.
It could be banking, commercial industrial, agricultural, etc.
Mixed administration:
Mixed or quasi-public administration refers to the activities of those organizations that are under the jurisdiction of both the public power and the private sector, and to them correspond the institutions of state, decentralized or autonomous participation.
Due to the scope it covers, mixed administration can be institutional, national and regional in nature, and due to the structure of the body it serves, it can be decentralized, autonomous, semi-official, participatory, etc.
COMPARISON BETWEEN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE ADMINISTRATION
Much has been argued about public administration, it is a separate discipline from private administration and, on the contrary, both are part of a general discipline called "administration." There are sufficient reasons to believe that the latter is the correct thing to do and that it does not in any way justify the existence of two separate disciplines. However, we can know that within each sphere in particular, there are specific situations that characterize it, as well as that have great analogies.
Differences:
Pfiffner says that: a characteristic that distinguishes the public administrator from the private one is one who is not constantly under the anxiety of the profit and loss statements, as his brother is in the field of business.
The public power provides services that are largely intangible.
For which the individual consumer pays no fees. For this reason and in order to find an evaluation instrument, serious efforts have been made to establish administrative efficiency standards, but to date both the public and the administrator have no precise means to know the intensity and quality of the activities. entrusted to the State. The doctrine of constitutional limitations in democratic countries establishes a supervisory weapon over the public administrator; The legislative and judicial powers are in charge of supervising the executive branch, but it is not known to anyone that this form is so elastic that the problem of the valuation of administrative activity in the government field remains.
Another difference that emerges is the legislative tendency of public officials.
A public administrator has to be sure that his actions comply with the legal requirements. Consequently, you should constantly consult the codes and regulations that indicate how to proceed.
The private administrator also consults codes and regulations to proceed but with a different purpose to find a way to do what is proposed without being sanctioned. The laws serve the public administrator to know what to do and the private one what not to do. Here the public is at an advantage over the private.
Dimock says that the public administration is characterized because it is less suitable than the private one, because it is limited by its responsibilities, which are framed in regulations that cannot be changed at will. It is also subject to unforeseen or premeditated policy changes, which results in changes of administration. The remedy for these disadvantages is the creation of permanent professional public servants, who occupy the highest positions, and provide certain autonomy to the administration to keep it away from these influences.
The problems are accentuated in the public administration due to governmental political conditions, legal restrictions, etc., which are above administrative autonomy and freedom of action.
A very common distinction between the two types of administration is one that refers to ends. From the objective point of view, it is indisputable that there is a sharp distinction the object of the government is to serve the citizens, to ensure the continuity of services. Instead the purpose of the private company is to obtain profit. However, it cannot be denied that there are private companies that work not only for non-profit purposes, but also carry out activities that, in principle, correspond to the State.
Donham says that, despite their great similarity, there are differences between public and private administration, mainly in respect of human material. In the government there is more continuity and definition in the mandate than in the private company, since the limits of action are often clearly defined in laws and regulations often sanctioned by the congress and its interference; accountability to the executive; defined general controls, etc., are characteristics that give it little resemblance to private businesses. The political powers of government agencies are radically different from private companies.
Stamp describes four differences:
First: It affirms that the judgment of government employees who are in contact with the public is very limited, since the public administration cannot discriminate of any kind between people. This uniformity in treatment throughout the administration is called the "principle of stability or consistency." Such an obligation does not exist in the private administration, except in those companies in which their business depends on the maintenance of an absolutely exact standard; There is no compulsion to serve certain people, so you don't have to worry about this principle.
Second: it is what he calls the principle of financial control. From the constitutional point of view, financial control is an authority exercised over state activity through the treasury or the budget office, and this control exercises repressive influence on all government agencies. It is not possible for a government agency to experiment with anything that requires an expense, since its expenditures are perfectly defined in quantity and purpose. Such repressive influence does not exist in private companies.
Third: it is the "principle of marginal repayment." We all know that expenses in private companies are made according to the general profit trend. This principle is only for private companies.
Fourth: it is that of the "responsibility of the marginal reimbursement." It is well known that even the last act of the most humble public servant is carried out in the light of the supreme authority, which is the congress, throughout an infinite series of steps on a broad hierarchical scale, from ministerial responsibility, it is necessary for administrative heads to justify the actions of their department. And this fact has an extraordinary influence on his staff and on the whole character of the administration.
Similarities:
Pfiffner affirms that the problems of administration and organization run through the same channels, regardless of whether it is a government agency or a private company and Nathan Isaacs finds many similarities between "power", which is the end of politicians and "profit »Which is the end of businessmen.
To carry out the tasks of the State, the public administration has exactly the same basic problems as the private administration: it can ignore profit. Using force, etc., and even so, the government itself has difficulties in sharing with private companies in the selection of personnel.
Denninson said that men who have had the opportunity to study the act. Public and private and who have been able to do the correct analysis and scientific comparisons, they usually discover that the difference between an organization and a small one is much greater than the difference between a public and a private organization.
The differences found between public and private administration lose their significance with the transfer of a large number of private administrators to public positions. Possibly the most difficult problem in that transfer of skills has not been in the administration specifically considered. The real difficulty is that private administrators must adjust their thinking and experience to understand the more complex activities of public administration.
The public administration has taken advantage of the services of private administrators. The administrator has a key place in the organization's scheme, be it public or private. It is the manager who takes the results of scientific management, arranges them into a new pattern, and then obtains cheaper and more abundant products with which more needs can be satisfied. In government, as in industry, the men who plan and organize their essential cogs in the complicated mechanism of modern civilization.
When one of the roots of individual motivation is penetrated, it becomes difficult to prove a substantial difference between government and private bureaucrats.
There is no distinctive psychology that is correlated with one group or another, despite the divergent social, political and economic ideas that may express their professional choice between government and private enterprise. The government administrator confesses the same incentive that moves the private administrator: "The desire to accumulate wealth and provide security for the family and for himself", while the head of the private company maintains equally as the government bureaucrat, that "his country in yes it is the incentive ».
TYPOLOGIES OF ORGANIZATIONS:
A basic classification of organizations can be given for their purpose, economic rationality, profit-making or non-profit.
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- For the product: * Of goods: manufacture of tangible goods.
* Of services: health, educational, financial, etc.
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- By the size of capital and number of workers:
* Micro-businesses: family, artisan.
* Small: less than one hundred workers.
* Median: percent of workers.
* Large: type of holding company, thousands of workers.
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- By the spatial scope of your market:
* Local or regional
*National.
*Multinational.
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- By the origin of capital:
* Private
* Public companies, of the state.
* Mixed.
We can classify non-profit organizations according to the figure of the state, traditionally like the army, non-profit non-governmental organizations, foundations, social clubs.
Of the state or public with centralized social and political purposes:
* Ministries * Dept. Administrative * Public establishments. * Local decentralized * Department and municipalities.
Traditional: * Army. *Church.
Non-governmental services: * NGO. *Club. * Associations.
There are also self-management organizations or associative forms of profit-making companies that are characterized by the fact that the resources belong to all the members who have participation in the distribution of benefits, for example cooperative organizations.
ORGANIZATIONS DRIVING STYLE:
The administrative process:
Administrative mergers:
For our purposes, we consider the planning, organization, direction and control phases to establish the need for the administrative capacity of those who actively participate in the practical aspect of each of these functions. Let's review one of them to establish and react that need:
Plan: It is predetermined a course of action to follow to achieve the established objectives. This process of course implies having the following elements:
* Forecast the sales volumes that can be achieved in certain periods.
* Set the desired end results or objectives.
* Develop strategies that indicate how and when to achieve the established goals.
* Formulate budgets.
* Establish procedures.
* Determine policies that guide managers in making decisions.
Organization: Its purpose is to assign and relate people in the organization to achieve the established objectives. This phase has aspects such as:
* Define the functions and activities necessary to achieve the objectives, integrate them into organic and coordinated units.
* Hierarchize the authority of each head of each of these organic units
* Define each position in terms of its requirements, tasks and relationships with the other elements of the organization.
These aspects are not rigid and inflexible but must be in line with technological changes that affect the organization.
Direction: through this function it is sought to make people take effective actions towards the achievement of the established objectives. This function requires:
* Delegating authority, that is, giving powers for others to decide.
* Motivate and persuade staff to collaborate and take effective action.
* Put into practice good human relations among all staff.
This phase refers only to human problems. One of the characteristics is that I have certain personal attributes and capacities, such as "gift of command", "knowing how to motivate" and so on.
Control: it is a function that seeks to ensure that the achievements conform to the established plans or standards. It requires taking into account the following:
* Establish norms or standards that serve as the basis for evaluating achievements.
* Measure performance and compare against established standards to determine any possible deviations.
* Take the necessary measures to avoid incurring the same deviations again.
* Constantly monitor all control systems to evaluate their own compliance and improvement.
The Knowledge of an Administrator: It is generally agreed that at least three types of knowledge are needed to carry out the Administration Process: technical, human and conceptual knowledge. The appropriate mix of these skills varies as an individual progresses in the organization from the upper level to the upper management positions.
As one moves down the higher levels of the organization, there is less conceptual knowledge; supervisors at the lower levels need a great deal of technical knowledge because they often must train and develop technicians and other employees in their sections. It seems to be at all levels is human knowledge.
LEGAL FORMS OF ORGANIZATIONS
The different types of commercial companies are detailed in company law 19,250, amended by law 22,903; According to said law, the commercial company has the following characteristics: union of two or more or more people, carried out in accordance with any of the types indicated in the company law, who make contributions to form the assets of the company to carry out commercial activities (production or exchange of goods) for profit, distributing the results obtained among the partners.
Said law defines the commercial company as follows: "There will be a commercial company when two or more people, in an organized manner, according to one of the types provided for in this law, are obliged to make contributions to apply them to the production or exchange of goods or services, participating in the benefits and bearing the losses.
Type of companies:
Our legislation offers different models of companies so that partners can choose the one that best suits their needs.
The fundamental differences between the different types of companies lie in:
* Importance of partners in society. * Responsibility for social commitments. * Form of social organization.
Taking into account the importance of partners in society, we can differentiate:
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- Societies of people: in which the personal qualities of the partners have great importance: * Soc. collective * Soc. in simple command. * Soc. capital and industry. * Soc accidental or in participation. Capital companies: in which the personal qualities of the partners are not important, but the contribution they make: * Soc. anonymous. * Partners in limited partnerships for shares.
In addition, there is another type of society that combines characteristics of both, without being exactly one class or another: * Soc. limited liability.
Another element that must be taken into account is the responsibility of the partners to third parties.
In the matter of companies, the word responsibility has a special meaning as society is responsible for its own obligations, that is, it must face its commitments (pay its debts). But there are certain cases in which the partners are also obliged to meet the commitments made by the company. The different degrees of responsibility are as follows:
* Subsidiary Responsibility: the person responsible for paying corporate debts is the company, doing so with its own funds. In case of exceeding their possibilities, the responsibility falls on the partners.
* Unlimited liability: in the event of the above situation, the liability of the partners is unlimited since it not only compromises the contribution delivered to the company, but also their private assets.
* Joint and several liability: when social debts must be faced with the private assets of the partners, they help each other, in solidarity.
* Limited liability: the company responds to the debts contracted up to the limit allowed by its own assets. The private assets of the partners are not affected.
Collective society:
Characteristics:
-Class: society of people.
-Responsibility of the partners: joint, unlimited and subsidiary.
-Corporate name: «S: C:»
-Administration: carried out by the person or persons indicated in the contract.
-Corporate decisions: they are made by agreement between the partners.
Simple limited partnership:
Characteristics:
-Class: society of people with some characteristics of capital companies.
It has two types of partners: * Commanded: similar to general partners
* Limited partners: simple capital providers, without intervening in the administration.
-Responsibility of the partners: * Limited: joint, unlimited and subsidiary.
* Limited partners: limited to contribution.
-Denomination: the abbreviation "S: C: S."
-Corporate reason: the names of the limited partners are listed, only.
Administration: corresponds only to the limited partners (as they are the ones with the greatest responsibility)
-Social decisions: they are made in a similar way to that of collective society.
Capital company and industry:
Characteristics:
-Class: partnership with two kinds of partners: * Capitalist partners: make contributions to form the social capital. Industrial partners: provide work.
-Responsibility of the partners:
Capitalists: unlimited, joint and subsidiary.
Industrialists: they are not liable for social debts except when they leave their profits in society.
-Social denomination: the abbreviation "SC and I."
-Corporate reason: they are formed with the names of the capitalist partners.
-Administration: in charge of the capitalist partners.
-Corporate decisions: by agreement between the partners.
Accidental or joint venture:
Characteristics:
-They are formed to conduct temporary business.
-They have two kinds of partners: manager and participants.
-It has no company name, business name, address, or established duration.
-All the activity is carried out by the managing partner, in his or her personal name, who is in charge of the social administration. At the end of the negotiation, it is "accountable" to the participating partners.
-Responsibility of the partners: Managers: unlimited and joint and several. Participants: limited to contribution.
Anonymous society:
Characteristics:
- Class: capital company where the partners limit their responsibility to the integration of the subscribed shares.
-Responsibility of the partners: unlimited and joint and several.
-Denomination: it is formed with the name of one or more persons of visible existence and must contain the expression "SA".
-Administration: management is entrusted to revocable agents, called administrators, who are not liable for corporate debts with their personal assets, except in the case of fault that compromises their responsibility.
-Preponderance of "capital" over the human element.
-More state control and supervision in the constitution and action.
-Corporate decisions: by the shareholders of the company.
Limited partnership by shares:
Characteristics:
-Class: society that has two types of partners:
Limited: responds the same as the partners of the partnership.
Limited partners: they limit their liability to the capital they subscribe. I only contribute them
of the limited partners are represented by shares.
-Responsibility of the partners: unlimited and joint and several.
-Denomination: it is integrated with the abbreviation «SCA».
-Administration: may be sole proprietorship, and will be exercised by limited partner or third party.
-Social decisions: made by both categories of partners.
Limited liability company:
Characteristics:
-These companies limit the personal liability of the partner and allow easier administration, control and governance, direct intervention of the partners.
-The contributions limit their liability to the capital they subscribe, but jointly and severally guarantee their integration.
-The capital stock is divided into installments.
-The members cannot exceed fifty.
-The name may contain one or more partners and must express the indication "limited liability company" or the acronym SRL
THE ADMINISTRATION AND THE ORGANIZATION IN LATIN AMERICA
Latin America is taken as a unit ecologically, because despite the economic, political, and ideological differences, it maintains the European and indigenous roots in one place or another and that due to its changing character has been randomly separating and bringing the countries that comprise it closer together. This leads us to conceive of Latin America as a unit of analysis.
Latin American Business Organizations:
There are two types of companies: state and private, which lead to national and international and local.
In Latin America, most of the companies are local, whose capital and production are in their country of origin, they are family companies or several families founded by a pioneer or by two or three friends who start out with a small farm and may become big enterprises.
In this period it can be classified as "bowling", which is small in size and its condition is more intuitive than rational. At this stage it has a precarious organization, with the absence of planning and the management of information is oriented towards tax evasion rather than management control.
At the time when the company stops being a bowling alley, the owner must delegate functions to technicians and part of their management, to professional managers for a greater organization.
In Argentina, being family businesses, it is common to see how, by not realizing the moment when they should stop being clubs and become companies, many projects fail or interrupt their growth.
Local companies were initially foreign, international or multinational that have led the advance towards better organizational practices, they were the only ones that had budgeting and information systems, (today already quite generalized) and that from the administrative and organizational point of view have contributed to business development.
State-owned companies, among them the large ones in each country, have contributed little to the development of the administration in practice, because having over-abundant organizational structures, bureaucrats, deficit and inefficient in the provision of services or production, have required and they require a deep adjustment in their organizations.
Characteristics of the Latin American context
* Instability and acute inflation: Inflationary processes have exceeded the margin of maneuver of the normal operation of companies, leading to speculation on exploitation oriented towards productivity. Thus, many countries, for long periods of time, have bet on the short term, absent from projects and with the plans agreed upon due to instability and the high cost of money.
* The preeminence of agriculture and the development of the industry: By tradition, Latin American countries have been producers of raw materials, some agricultural producers such as Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay) Brazil, Colombia, Mexico, Ecuador and the Andean countries dedicated to mining. In these countries, technology was slow to arrive and modern organizational practices have had little access due to lack of economic resources.
At the national level, industrial development must go hand in hand with agricultural-livestock growth in order to achieve greater economic enrichment.
* Technology: As a consequence, the incorporation of technology in Latin America will be limited for a long time to three areas: infrastructure (transportation, energy and communications), primary production and industrialization for export and simple industries attracted by the local market (food, beverages, changing rooms, etc.), the suppliers of this technology being foreign manufacturers of machinery and equipment.
This generated a differentiation between science and technology, since in the central countries, at the beginning of the industrial revolution, research is based on the application of new knowledge to production and the production process, and in Latin American countries, science it is linked to the application of knowledge to production, the axis being technological development supported by transfer from central countries.
Hence, it is said that in Latin America there is a duality between science and technology that reflects a univocal reality in an economic and social system.
To reverse this duality, universities must create an adequate research approach and Latin American companies must make greater investments in research and economic development, the demand being the main stimulus for innovation, especially in dynamic companies due to the high degree of technical progress they carry (aerospace, electrical, chemical, automotive, machine tools).
The role of the professional in the development of administrative practices.
Despite the progress made in Latin America, the administration has a long way to go.
This path must be traveled by professionals who apply appropriate models to the Latin American reality.
Myrdal (winner of the Nobel Prize in economics) says: "Young economists should not deviate to apply predilections of the economic thought of the advanced countries, since it would hinder the scholars of these countries in their efforts to get closer to reality."
conclusion
Aware of all the limitations and complexities that the approach to the subject may mean, we can say that; After having read Klikberg and Valladares Rivera about the doubt, if the administration is: science, art or technology, We believe that it obeys, as Klikberg maintains, an insufficiency in its degree of epistemological categorization but… regarding the two most relevant types of problem that he finds in the management concepts of the other authors and describes what they are; problems caused by simple semantic confusion, and problems related to misconceptions. We believe that he has also fallen into the same error, insofar as he tells us that: «Artistic activity tries to transcendthe level of mere utilization in man's relationship with men and with the environment. It tries to reach the essences, and to rescue the beauty and the feeling ». Possessing that transcending is only subjective.
It is not that our analysis, we are doing it from a philosophical or epistemological point of view or we are refuting the concept of art that he exposed, but when using the word «transcend» he also falls into confusion because, according to José Ferrater Mora in his dictionary of philosophy poses the term as a theological and metaphysical problem and he also tells us that: »Apart from the metaphysical meaning it is worth considering the primarily gnoseological point of view about the concept
transcendence, in which the way of conceiving the subject-object relationship plays an important role. In this case the subject "transcends" towards the object as a knowable external object. It is then said that the object is transcendent to the subject and that the subject can reach it when it goes "towards the object." Thus, the epistemological transcendence of the object presupposes the transcendence of the subject towards the object. When the transcendence of the object is complete, a realistic conception of knowledge is sustained,… »
By this we mean that a realistic conception can be subjective but it can also be that the subject is objective about the object to be described. And this is where we also fall into other terms that have philosophical and linguistic discussion that they are (real, realistic, reality). And this term is also used by Kliskberg when he tells us that: «…. The artist interprets reality through concrete subjectivity, and with it adds the trait of originality… ». Falling back into semantic confusion and misconceptions.
These analyzes are somewhat pharaonic for our knowledge because we are just entering the study of administration. But… what we can say is that we do not deny science or technology but we believe that administration is also an art.
We understand that we must analyze the components, in a systemic and open way of thinking, and not emphasize in any way in deterministic and fragmentary positions, as opposed to a vision of the totality of the concept of administration because it penetrates almost all human activities and whose border areas are not clearly defined.
On the other hand, we believe that applied art is not an art referred to painting or music etc. Rather, it is an art exclusively aimed at administration.
Therefore, for the team: “Management is the process of creating and designing with a scientific discipline and must maintain an environment in which people, working in teams, efficiently achieve selected goals. with an adequate use of available resources »
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
1-Barcos, J. Santiago: «Knowing the Administration, the organizations and the administration of organizations» - Chapter 1
2-Ferrater Mora, José: «Dictionary of abbreviated philosophy» - Ed Sudamérica. Bs. As. 1991
3-Geli, Alejandro: «What is the administration» - Ch. 1 - Ed. Macchi
4-Kast and Rosenzweig: «Administration Of Organizations» chap 1- Ed. Mac Graw Hill
5-Kliksberg, Bernardo: «Organizational thought: From Taylorism to Organization Theory» - Chap. 4 and 5 - Ed Paidos.
6-Martínez Fajardo, Carlos: «Administration of organizations» - Chapter 1 - University of Colombia.1996
7-Website: Monographs. Com.
8-Website: unamosapuntes.com.
9-Valladares Rivera, Román: «General Administration Volume 1. University Ed. Honduras 1992.
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