Organizational development theory

Origin

This movement of organizational development, DO, emerged from 1962 as a complex set of ideas regarding man, the organization, and the environment, aimed at promoting growth and development according to their potentialities, the DO is a practical and operational result of behavior theory oriented towards the systematic approach.

An intense movement that brings together several authors who seek to apply behavioral sciences to management.

The origins of DO can be attributed to several factors:

1. The difficulty in operationalizing concepts of the various theories about organization, which brought a different approach, organizational development is the result of the efforts of behaviorist theory to promote change and organizational flexibility and in conflict with the others, namely:
   1. The classical theory proposed by Taylor and Fayol emphasized, each one separately, on formal organization and rationalization of working methods. The scientific organization developed a rigid and mechanistic approach, which considered man from an atomistic and simplistic point of view (economic man), as an appendage of the machine. That theory was evidenced as incomplete and biased; The theory of human relations, proposed by Mayo, was a reaction of opposition to the traditionalism of classical theory. He emphasized the man (social man) and the psychological climate of work. Employee expectations, psychological needs, informal organization, and the conventional communications network become the main components of management studies.Leadership began to replace formal hierarchical authority. This theory was incomplete and partial, since it only reinforced those organizational aspects omitted or rejected by classical theory; The theory of bureaucracy sought to lay the foundations of an ideal and rational model of organization that could be copied and applied to companies, whatever their branch of activity, Weber described the most important characteristics of bureaucratic or rational organization, based on the military structure of the Prussian army, however Weber's followers found a series of distortions, the ideal and theoretical bureaucratic organization lacked the flexibility to necessarily adapt to the innovations of a modern society. Structuralist theory represented a more critical view of the organization,this conceives modern society as a society of organizations. An organization must be interpreted as the synthesis of the formal and informal organization. Within an organization we find the organizational objectives (higher profits, greater efficiency, growth, etc.) in conflict with the individual objectives of the participants (higher wages, better working hours, prestige, etc.). Structuralist theory points more to the problems and critical aspects of organizations than to the solutions themselves. It does not present a theory of organization: it only criticizes the hitherto existing theories and offers a method of analysis and comparison of organizations; The theory of behavior arose from the theory of human relations,resulting in a predominantly sociological and motivational approach. The organization is seen as a social organism that has its own life and culture, in which management styles and organization systems are developed to direct people. From there arises organizational behavior, the result of exchanges and standards of people's relationships. The theory of behavior was more a theory that brought new concepts and contributions than a definitive theory of management. The theory of behavior resulted in the organizational development movement aimed at achieving organizational change and flexibility. It has been proven that it is not enough just to develop a training without producing a specific change,it is also necessary to establish a performance pattern and a coherent program of changes throughout the organization.
   The deepening of studies on human motivation and its interference in the dynamics of organizations. These theories demonstrated the need to seek a new approach to administration, capable of interpreting a new conception of modern man and the current organization, based on motivational dynamics. It was found that the objectives of the individuals are not always conjugated with the organizational objectives, which causes inefficient behavior that prevents the achievement of the objectives The creation of the National Training Laboratory in Bethel in 1947 and the first laboratory research on the group behavior, aimed at re-educating human behavior and improving social relationships, through T-Groups.The publication of a book product of the investigations with the T-groups, the coordinator, Leland Bradford is considered by some authors the precursor of the movement called organizational development. The plurality of the changes in the world originated the organizational development, namely:
   1. A rapid and unexpected transformation of the organizational environment; An increase in the size of organizations, which made the volume of traditional activities of the organization not enough to sustain growth Modern technology, requiring highly specialized people with very different skills; Changes in administrative behavior due to a:
      • New concept of man based on the knowledge of his complex and changing needs. New concept of power based on collaboration and reason. New concept of organizational values, based on human-democratic ideas. The great invention of the end of the 20th century. This modified the life of society, organizations, man and his vision of the world.
   The fusion of the study of structure and the study of human behavior in organizations, systems theory brought together the structural and behavioral aspects, enabling the emergence of organizational development. There is a difference between process (procedures) and structure, structural aspects are static elements of the organization and refer to the distribution of its different components (division of labor, authority and responsibility).The process (procedure) is dynamic and refers to to the norms that determine an organization, the positions and functions assumed by people, the way in which problems are solved and decisions are made. OD was limited to interpersonal conflicts of small groups,It then passed to the public administration and later to all types of human organizations (industries, service companies, military organizations, etc.). DO aims to be a specialty of psychology, although its application is not restricted to a purely psychological approach. It is a continuation of the theory of human relations, by proposing a social theory of the organizational sphere. OD was only asserted when it incorporated the systematic approach in the study of organizations. The various OD models basically consider four variables. These four basic variables are approached with special attention in their interrelation and interdependence, so that a change allows achieving both organizational and individual objectives:military organizations, etc.). DO aims to be a specialty of psychology, although its application is not restricted to a purely psychological approach. It is a continuation of the theory of human relations, by proposing a social theory of the organizational sphere. OD was only asserted when it incorporated the systematic approach in the study of organizations. The various OD models basically consider four variables. These four basic variables are approached with special attention in their interrelation and interdependence, so that a change allows achieving both organizational and individual objectives:military organizations, etc.). DO aims to be a specialty of psychology, although its application is not restricted to a purely psychological approach. It is a continuation of the theory of human relations, by proposing a social theory of the organizational sphere. OD was only asserted when it incorporated the systematic approach in the study of organizations. The various OD models basically consider four variables. These four basic variables are approached with special attention in their interrelation and interdependence, so that a change allows achieving both organizational and individual objectives:It is a continuation of the theory of human relations, by proposing a social theory of the organizational sphere. OD was only asserted when it incorporated the systematic approach in the study of organizations. The various OD models basically consider four variables. These four basic variables are approached with special attention in their interrelation and interdependence, so that a change allows achieving both organizational and individual objectives:It is a continuation of the theory of human relations, by proposing a social theory of the organizational sphere. OD was only asserted when it incorporated the systematic approach in the study of organizations. The various OD models basically consider four variables. These four basic variables are approached with special attention in their interrelation and interdependence, so that a change allows achieving both organizational and individual objectives:for a change to achieve both organizational and individual objectives:for a change to achieve both organizational and individual objectives:
   1. The environment, focused on aspects such as environmental turbulence, the explosion of knowledge, technology and communications, and the impact of these changes on institutions and social values; The organization, taking into account the characteristics of dynamism and organizational flexibility to survive in a dynamic and changing environment, where new technologies, new social values, new expectations, etc. emerge; The social group, considering aspects of leadership, communication, interpersonal relationships, conflicts, etc.; The individual, highlighting the motivations, attitudes, needs, etc.;

THE CHANGES AND THE ORGANIZATION

The concept of organizational development is closely linked to the concepts of change and the adaptive capacity of the organization subject to environmental change.

DO starts from dynamic concepts such as:

a) ORGANIZATION CONCEPT

This concept is for the specialist authors of typically behavioral organizational development: "an organization is the coordination of different activities of individual participants in order to carry out planned transactions with the environment." Each participant's contributions vary based on the reward and contribution system for the organization.

This concept uses the traditional notion of work when referring to the different activities and coordination in the organization and refers to people as contributors to organizations. the contribution of each participant to the organization depends on their individual differences and the organization's reward and contribution system.

Every organization operates in a certain environment and its existence and survival depend on how it relates to that environment. Therefore, it must be structured and streamlined according to the conditions and circumstances in which it operates.

The fundamental differences between mechanical systems (typical of the traditional concept) and organic systems (OD approach) should be highlighted. The latter make organizations collectively aware of their destinies and of the orientation to achieve them. They develop a new social awareness of the participants, who, along with their particular experience, their personal past and their self-awareness, define their role in relation to their organization.

b) CONCEPT OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE

It is the set of habits, beliefs, values ​​and traditions, interactions and social relationships typical of each organization. It represents the way we are used to doing things.

In the same way, every organization has its own. "Organizational culture" is called the way of life that each organization develops in its members. The culture of an organization is not static, but undergoes changes over time, depending on internal and external conditions. Some organizations manage to constantly renew their culture while maintaining their integrity and personality, while others remain with their culture tied to obsolete and outdated patterns.

The DO believes that to change an organization, the only viable way is to change its culture, that is, the systems in which people live and work.

c) ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE.

They also emphasize the organizational climate, which constitutes the internal environment of an organization and its particular psychological atmosphere.

The organizational climate is closely linked to morality and the satisfaction of the human needs of its members. The climate can be healthy or unhealthy, hot or cold, negative or positive, satisfactory or unsatisfactory, depending on how the participants feel about the organization.

Some individuals are more or less sensitive than others in relation to aspects of this climate, and a characteristic that appears to be positive for one member of an organization may be perceived as negative or unsatisfactory for others.

The concept of organizational climate includes various degrees, such as the type of organization, the technology used, company policies, operational goals, internal regulations (all of which constitute structural factors), as well as attitudes and forms of social behavior., driven or punished (they constitute social factors).

d) CHANGE OF CULTURE AND ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE

Each organization is a complex human system, with its own characteristics, with its own culture and its own organizational climate. All this set of variables must be continuously observed, analyzed and perfected to achieve productivity and motivation.

For the organization to be able to change the culture and organizational climate, it needs to have innovative capacity, represented by the following characteristics:

1. Adaptability, that is, the ability to solve problems and react flexibly to the changing and inconstant demands of the environment. In order to adapt, the organization must:
   • Be flexible, to be able to integrate new activities Be receptive and transparent to new ideas, whether they come from inside or outside the organization;
   Sense of identity, that is, that participants know and understand the past and present of the organization, as well as understand and share its objectives; Exact perspective of the environment, that is, a realistic perception coupled with an ability to Investigate, diagnose and understand the environment; Integration between the participants, in such a way that the organization can behave as an organic. Therefore, it is not enough to change the structure. It is necessary to change the culture of the organization.

e) CONCEPT OF CHANGE

Today's world is characterized by a constant change in the environment. The general environment that surrounds organizations is too dynamic, and requires a high capacity for adaptation as a basis for survival. The sixties was the "decade of the explosion" and characterized conditions for the emergence of DO.

• The highly dynamic general environment, which implies the explosion of knowledge, technology, communications and the economy The business environment, facing the internationalization of markets, the shorter life of products, the growing importance of marketing. This creates a completely new set of demands on the administrator.

The concept of change includes three phases to take into account:

1. Thawing the current standard of behavior. It arises when the need for change becomes so obvious that the person, group or organization can quickly understand and accept it, so that change can occur. If there is no thaw, the trend will be a pure and simple return to the usual standard. It arises when new attitudes, values ​​and behaviors are discovered and adopted. The change agent leads people, groups or the entire organization to promote new values, attitudes and behaviors through processes of identification and internalization. It means the incorporation of a new standard of conduct through support and reinforcement mechanisms, so that this standard becomes the new norm.

f) CHANGE PROCESS ACCORDING TO KURT LEWIN

The process of change occurs in a dynamic field of forces acting in various directions. On the one hand, there are positive forces that act as support and support for change and, on the other hand, negative forces that act as opposition and resistance to change.

The system operates within a state of relative equilibrium that is called quasi-stationary. This is altered when some pressure of forces arises, whether positive or negative. Change is the result of competition between driving forces and restraining forces.

The organization must be attentive to the new needs and opportunities presented by its environment.

The change must be planned and oriented towards a previously established objective.

g) DEVELOPMENT CONCEPT

The natural tendency of any organization is to grow and develop. Development is a slow and gradual process that leads to the exact knowledge of itself and the full realization of its potentialities.

Organizational development is necessary whenever the organization competes and struggles for its survival in changing conditions. Each era develops the most appropriate and characteristic organizational form for its nature. The changes that are occurring in the modern world make it necessary to revitalize and rebuild our organizations.

While generic change involves alterations in the environment, organizational change is a set of structural and behavioral alterations in an organization. These two fundamental types of alterations (structural and behavioral are interdependent and intimately intertwined.

Organizational development allows you to:

1. A deep and real knowledge of itself and its possibilities; A deep knowledge of the environment in which it operates; Proper planning and successful execution.

The DO emphasizes that for an organization to reach a certain level of development they must use different strategies of change.

There are three kinds of change strategies:

1. Evolutionary change: "when the change is minimal and is within expectations and convenience". Evolutionary change is slow, moderate DO There is a tendency to repeat and reinforce solid and efficient solutions, and abandon weak and deficient solutions; Revolutionary change: generally this change is fast, intense, brutal, surpasses and rejects the old expectations and introduces some Systematic development: in this, those responsible for change design explicit models of what the organization should be compared to what it is, while those whose actions will be affected by systematic development study, evaluate and criticize the change model to Recommend modifications, based on your own insight and understanding.

h) PHASES OF THE ORGANIZATION

Organizations assume various organizational forms in different environments and times. Furthermore, organizations, during their existence, go through five quite different phases.

1. Pioneering phase: it is the initial phase of the organization, carried out by its founders. As it is still small, its processes are easily supervised and controllable. There are few routine tasks and a large volume of improvisations, the capacity of the company to carry out innovations is very high. Expansion phase, is the phase in which the organization grows, intensifies its operations and increases the number of its participants. The basic concern is the use of the organization's production; Regulation phase: with the growth of activities, it is forced to establish coordination norms between the various departments or sectors, and to define work routines and processes; Bureaucratization phase: a well-defined chain of command develops,a detailed vision of the work based on specialization and impersonal relationships between participants. This pyramidal and monocratic organization presents very little flexibility for changes and for innovation; Reflection phase: that is, of readaptation to flexibility, of reencounter with the lost capacity for innovation.

i) CRITICISM OF THE CONVENTIONAL STRUCTURES

OD specialists emphasize that structures do not have the conditions to stimulate innovative activity or to adapt to changing circumstances. The main criticisms they make to the conventional structures of the organization are:

1. The power of management frustrates the employee. Power is inherent and indispensable to the entire organization. It is through power that the organization retains the employee, and not the other way around. Power differentiates the interests of the organization from the interests of the employees. This leads to the fact that many times, they do not identify with it, deteriorating the performance of their functions, through negative attitudes.The division of labor and the fragmentation of functions impede the emotional commitment of the employee When the organization is divided into departments, these in divisions, these into sections, and so on, there is a fragmentation in which human effort is limited to predetermined and rigid routines. Personal commitment is an emotion. If it is ignored,there is no personal commitment and it must be executed mechanically, automatically and without motivation. Motivation is a state of mind directly related to emotion. If this is not present in an organization, there will be no personal commitment of individuals; The sole authority or command unit restricts the employee's communication and negatively affects her commitment to the organization. Linear authority limits and establishes only one communication channel from top to bottom. Each employee has a single supervisor, who is the terminal of their only contact with the organization. Permanent functions, once appointed, become fixed and unchanged. The movement of personnel within organizations depends on the possibilities created by retirements, retirements,Deaths and some new positions eventually created, many times, the organization has to lose staff to create promotion possibilities for its employees. Tasks are performed within the same routine for long periods of time, which leads to a reduction in spontaneous participation and monotony.

WHAT IS ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

In principle, organizational development is all planned change. It is rooted in the idea of ​​an organization and a social system. It is a planned process of cultural and structural modifications, applied to an organization that visualizes a series of social technologies, in such a way that the organization is enabled to diagnose, plan and implement those modifications with or without external assistance.

DO is an organization's response to changes. Designed to change the attitudes, values, behaviors and structure of the organization, so that it can better adapt to new situations, markets, technologies, problems and challenges that constantly arise in increasing progression. The DO also covers the total system of an organization and the planned modification, to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of the organization. Every organization interacts with the environment: it influences the environment and receives its influences.

The DO clearly perceives what is happening in the internal and external environments of the organization, analyzes and decides what should be changed and how to intervene to introduce the change, making the organization more effective, perfectly adaptable to changes and reconciling fundamental human needs with the objectives and goals of the organization. OD is based on the behavioral sciences, it is based on the principle that planned change is a specialized technique, whose purpose is to create conscious and rational action and change. This definition includes the following meanings:

• Problem solving process. They refer to the methods by which the company faces threats and opportunities in its environment. Renewal process are the ways in which managers adapt their problem solving processes to the demands of the environment. One of the objectives of the DO is to improve the organizational processes of author renewal, by transforming managers so that they can adapt and change their style. Participatory Administration. Another goal of DO is to share management with employees. Participatory management means that managers put aside the hierarchical structure and give employees an important role in decision-making. Development and empowerment. It refers to giving teams freedom to act, to participate in decisions,full autonomy Research-action. DO uses research for diagnosis and action of change.

It requires the following steps.

• Preliminary diagnosis of the problem Obtaining data to support or reject the diagnosis Feedback of data to participants Exploration of data by participants Execution of appropriate action

a) BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF THE DO

The basic assumptions that are considered the most important:

1. Rapid and constant mutation of the environment. The modern world is characterized by rapid change and explosive progression. There are scientific, technological, economic changes, etc., that act and influence the development and success of organizations in general (industrial companies, service companies, public administration, hospitals, universities, etc.) Need for continuous adaptation. The individual, the group, the organization and the community are dynamic and living systems of adaptation, adjustment and reorganization, as a basic condition for survival in a constantly changing environment. Interaction between the organization and the individual. DO starts from a philosophy that human beings are endowed with aptitudes for productivity that can remain inactive if the context in which they work is hostile.It is possible to integrate the goals of individuals with the objectives of the organization, in a plan in which the meaning of work is truly stimulating and rewarding and provides possibilities for personal development Planned organizational change Personal leadership by intuition (spontaneous and improvised) should be replaced by an organizational leadership with authority of knowledge about the hierarchical authority of the position. The presence of conflicts and risks is a challenge and not a threat or danger. The planned change is a continuous process, which takes time and cannot be resolved in a few moments. Need for participation and commitment. The planned change is a collective achievement and not the result of the work of a few people.The improvement of the organizational effectiveness and the well-being of the organization depend on the understanding and application of knowledge about human nature.The variety of OD models and strategies There are several models and strategies for situations depending on the diagnosis made. DO is a response to change. It is a complex educational effort, intended to change attitudes, values, etc. and the structure of the organization, in such a way that it can adapt to environmental demands, characterized by new technologies, new markets, problems and challenges. Organizations are open systems, »Organizations are open systems, sensitive, responsive to environmental changes. We can call them systems because they have limits and the ability to self-perpetuate and develop.They are open because they exchange matter, energy and information with the environment and transform them within its limits ”.

b) THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DO

The definition of DO assumes several characteristics, such as:

1. Focus on the organization as a whole. OD involves the organization as a whole so that change can occur effectively. Systemic orientation. OD focuses on interactions between the parts of the organization that influenced each other, for working relationships between people, as well as for organizational structure and processes. Change agent. OD uses change agents, who are people who play a role in stimulating, guiding and coordinating change within a group. Problem solving. DO emphasizes problem solving and does not just discuss them theoretically. For this, it uses action research, that is, organizational improvement through research and the diagnosis of the problems and the action necessary to solve them. Experimental learning.Participants learn from experience in the training environment the types of problems they face on the job. Group process and team development. OD relies on group processes such as group discussions, confrontations, intergroup conflicts, and procedures for cooperation. Feedback. DO provides feedback and feedback to people so that they have concrete data to support their decisions. Feedback provides feedback on their behavior and motivates people to understand the situations in which they are involved and take self-corrective action. Situational Orientation. The DO follows a rigid and immutable procedure. Quite the contrary, it is situational and contingency-oriented. It is flexible pragmatic,adapts the actions to adapt them to the specific and particular needs that were diagnosed. Development of teams. DO is done through teams. His proposition is the planned change based on the principle that there is no ideal model applicable to any circumstance. Organizations must adapt to their circumstances in a planned way.

   10. Interactive approach. Communications and interactions constitute the fundamental aspects of OD to obtain a multiplication of efforts towards change. Synergy is essential in interactions.

c) OBJECTIVES OF THE DO

The common objectives of the DO are:

1. Creation of a sense of identification of people in relation to the organization Development of team spirit through integration and interaction of people Improvement of the common perception of the external environment in order to facilitate the adaptation of the entire organization.

d) APPLICATIONS OF THE OD

There are certain organizational conditions that require application and use of OD, the essential condition is that someone, in a strategic position of the organization, feels the need for modification, OD programs can be applied to the following types of organizational conditions or felt needs of change:

1. Need to change cultural norms, that is, organizational culture. Need to change structures and positions; that is, the formal aspects of the organization Need to improve intergroup collaboration

THE DO PROCESS

The technology of organizational development emerged from the behavioral sciences. In this sense, OD constitutes a process that consists of three stages: data collection, diagnosis

1. Data collection: data collection and analysis is one of the most difficult technical activities and methods to describe the organizational system, the relationships between its elements and subsystems. and ways to identify the most important problems and issues. Organizational Diagnosis: it is mainly oriented to the problem solving process. Considerable attention is given to developing and testing new approaches to solving organizational problems and preparing the system for change. Intervention: Intervention action can be performed through sensitivity training or laboratory methods. The intervention is a phase of the OD process that can be defined as a planned action that must be carried out after the diagnosis phase.Obtaining data or diagnosing is a way of intervening in the system. The intervention is not the final phase of the OD, but a stage capable of facilitating the process. Which must be continuous.

TECHNIQUES OF THE DO

1. INTERVENTION TECHNIQUES FOR INDIVIDUALS.

The main DO technique for people is sensitivity training. It is a form of group dynamics designed to re-educate human behavior and improve social relationships. It is carried out through groups called T-groups (training groups) that have around ten participants, a Psychologist guides them in a laboratory in order to increase their sensitivity in their skills to relate interpersonally. In various meetings, participants diagnose and experience their behavior in a group, acting as subjects and experimenters at the same time.

The objective is self-knowledge and knowledge of the impact that the individual has on other people, in addition to the improvement of interpersonal communication by eliminating their barriers. With this, the individual becomes less defensive, less fearful of the intentions of others, more responsible to others and they no longer interpret their needs in a negative way. The result is greater creativity, less hostility in relation to others, and greater sensitivity to social and psychological influences on work behavior. Its effectiveness is undeniable in improving individual and interpersonal competence, reducing anxiety and reducing intergroup conflict.

2. INTERVENTION TECHNIQUES FOR TWO OR MORE PEOPLE.

It is the bilateral OD or interpersonal relationships. Transactional analysis is the best known technique and its objective is the self-diagnosis of interpersonal relationships. Transaction means any form of communication or relationship with others. AT is a technique suitable for individuals, not groups. In it, a whole singular terminology is used, such as father, child, adult, caress, games, positions in life, etc.

The TA studies the following aspects:

1. States of the Self

The AT explains that people do not have immutable behaviors. In each individual there are different people, often with antagonistic attitudes, that arise according to the situation. These people are called "states of the self," and each has its own specific vocabulary, tone of voice, particular expressions, and different attitudes, as well as different ideas about the world and how things should be done. There are three states of the self, which are the three typical positions as the "ego" manifests itself in relationships with others:

1. The father, the ego in the position of the father, exhorts, moralizes, punishes and imposes itself. It is the protective or dominant ego; T he child is the ego position that manifests itself through typical childhood reactions, such as crying and the need for protection against stimuli or situations from the outside world (such as cold, heat, rain or hunger, for example) The ego is insecure and dependent; The adult. It is the position of the ego that is manifested through logical reasoning, the classification of the data of interest, the control and brake of the position of the parent or the child and that establishes constructive relationships from adult to adult in contacts with peers. It is the mature and independent, rational and logical ego.

While the positions of the parent and the child are reactive and emotional, the position of the adult is rational and thinking.

2. Transactions

The transaction is the basic unit of the social relationship. It means any form of communication or interpersonal relationship. AT assumes that each individual behaves in different ways, depending on the situations in which he finds himself and the people with whom he interacts.

By analyzing the transactions, each person can determine in what state his ego and that of the people around him are when he is operating D Depending on the situations, the person can act as an adult, parent or child to adapt to the role that the other person plays. assigns. There are two types of transactions: parallel and crossed (or blocked). The former allow the continuity of communications, while the latter block them, preventing interpersonal relationships.

TA is an attempt to transform all transactions, whether parallel or crossed, into adult x adult type transactions, thus improving interpersonal relationships. In this way there are two types of transactions:

1. Parallel transactions. When person A adjusts to the role in which person B frames her to allow better understanding and continuity in the relationship Cross transactions. When person A does not conform to the role in which person B fits, which causes them to lock, paralyze or block the relationship. Intervention techniques for teams or groups.

The two main DO techniques for teams or groups are the procedure office and team development.

1. Procedures consulting. O Process consulting, is a technique that uses coordinated teams or an internal or external consultant. The consultant promotes interventions in teams to make them more sensitive to their internal processes of setting goals and objectives, participation of feelings, leadership, decision-making, etc. Conventional types of organizational structure generally present an inhibiting influence on innovation and creativity. A widely used technique, groups of employees from various levels of specialization meet under the coordination of a specialist or consultant and criticize each other seeking a consensus in which collaboration is more fruitful, eliminating interpersonal barriers to communication through exposure and understanding of its causes.In teamwork, hierarchical differences and the specific interests of each department to which the participants belong are eliminated, which provides a healthy disposition for innovation, as differences are no longer relevant. Intervention techniques for intergroup relations. The main DO technique for intergroup relationships is the shaping meetings technique. They constitute a behavioral alteration technique based on the performance of an internal or external consultant as moderator. Two antagonistic groups in conflict can be dealt with through confrontational meetings, in which each group evaluates itself, as well as evaluates the behavior of the other as if it were in front of a mirror. Intervention techniques for the organization as a whole.The main DO technique for the entire organization is data feedback. It is a technique of behavioral changes that starts from the more cognitive data the individual receives, the greater will be their ability to organize it and act creatively. The provision of information (data feedback) provides learning of new data that is not always taken into account, feedback refers to the activities and processes that reflect the way a person is perceived or how others view them.The provision of information (data feedback) provides learning of new data that is not always taken into account, feedback refers to the activities and processes that reflect the way a person is perceived or how others view them.The provision of information (data feedback) provides learning of new data that is not always taken into account, feedback refers to the activities and processes that reflect the way a person is perceived or how others view them.

The provision of information is based on the inventory of data obtained through interviews or questionnaires applied to some section of the organization to verify certain aspects of the organizational process, such as morale, the reward system, administrative style, etc.

DO MODELS

OD models that simultaneously introduce structural and behavioral modifications are integrated and more complex models. Each develops concepts, strategies, sequences and schemes that vary enormously.

The main models are:

1. Managerial Grid or DO of the grid type, proposed by Blake and Mouton; DO model by Lawrence and Lorsh; 3-D ​​model of managerial effectiveness, by Redin.

a) MANAGERIAL GRID OR TYPE GRID

Blake and Mouton pioneered an integrated, pre-programmed DO technology. These authors start from the assumption that organizational change begins with individual change and that process problems at the interpersonal, group and intergroup levels must occur before changes in the strategy and in the internal environment of the organization.

The DO technology adopted by Blake and Mouton rests on three premises about organizations:

1. Individuals and organizations reduce the dissonance between their self-image and reality. This process initiates the change in the internal environment of the organization (policies, structures, systems, etc.) Organizations achieve "satisfactions" below their potential: both their operation and their performance need to be improved so that they are more competitive and coherent With today's world, which is characterized by accelerated and incessant transformations, a large amount of energy in organizations is spent on dysfunctional behaviors, which causes what is called cultural drag (cultural load).

A new form of change is needed - systematic change - that offers new alternatives for learning based on experience.

1. The excellence gap: as the company is a complex system, it must be analyzed in its entirety and verify its excellence gap, that is, the deviation from its standard of excellence. The leaders of a company can design models of what the company would be if they directed it through the criteria of excellence; created such models the way the company is being managed can be compared with the way it should be Managers can easily identify the gaps (discrepancies and contradictions) between what the company is and what it should be,as well as designing and implementing the actions that lead the company to depart from its current operations in the direction of excellence, the excellence gap between what the company is and what it should be can be explained by the following aspects:

2. Confirmation of business excellence. To verify whether the company is excellent or not, the business confrontation allows the evaluation of the six functions of the company through three perspectives and four orientations.

The three perspectives are:

• Current efficiency. It refers to the evaluation of how well things are being done, indicating areas of weakness and strength; Flexibility. It is the ability of the company to change quickly, correctly and solidly in order to face unpredictable changes that occur in the short term; Development. They are long-term strategies (2, 5, or 10 years) that can increase the possibility that the company will achieve programmed growth later.

The four orientations are:

• Business actions, classified as internal (actions included by factors directly controlled by the company); External actions (influences outside the direct control of the company), on the one hand; Aggressive actions (actions that aim to increase momentum, that is, stimulate opportunities, accept challenges, increase the capacity of the company to reach its state of excellence); Defensive actions (actions that seek to reduce the resistance to advance, repel or reject threats, reduce or eliminate weaknesses or deficiencies, reduce or neutralize obstacles that limit performance of companies), on the other hand.

3. The managerial grid: it assumes that the administrator of a company is always oriented towards two issues:

• Production: the results of his efforts; People: bosses, colleagues, or those whose work he directs,

The managerial grid is a mesh composed of two axes:

• The horizontal axis of the Grid, which represents the concern for production. It is a continuous series of nine points in which nine signifies a high concern for production and 1 a low concern for production.The vertical axis of the Grid, which represents concern for people. It is also a continuous series of nine points, where nine is a high degree and 1 is a low degree of concern for people.

According to this mesh we would have the following styles:

(first number horizontal axis, second number vertical axis)

Style 1.1

The application of a minimum effort to get the necessary work done is adequate and sufficient to preserve the prerogative of a member of the organization.

Style 1.9

Attention focused on people's needs, since with satisfactory relationships a pleasant atmosphere and a cordially organized work pace are achieved

Style 5.5

Adequate organizational performance is possible through a balance between the need to get the job done and keeping people's amorality at a satisfactory level.

Style 9.1

Efficiency in operations results from making a distribution of working conditions so that human elements interfere to a minimum.

Style 9.9

The performance of the work is achieved by committed people: interdependence through a “common interest” in the organization's objective leads to relationships of trust and respect.

4. Grid-type DO phases: the Grid-type DO program includes six phases, namely:

Phase 1: laboratory seminars for all members of the organization, starting from the top management towards the base, in order to analyze the organizational culture through the Grid.Each

of the company's functions is evaluated by its team through through the Grid, in three alternatives:

• Excellent performance; Regular performance; Unacceptable performance.

Phase 2: development of teams in all groups in the organization, starting with senior management, to study the dynamics of the organization's behavior. Use the Grid to evaluate the quality and nature of participation in order to locate difficulties and verify the direction of the improvement plan.

Phase 3: intergroup confrontation meetings to develop exchange between the groups and improve coordination between them.

Intergroup development. As not all the problems of the behavior dynamics of a company are limited to natural work teams, this phase preserves the working relationships between organized units of the company and emphasizes cooperation and coordination.

This phase seeks to learn how to achieve maximum cooperation and coordination while maintaining all possible efficiency, consistent with the segmentation of the company into its natural components.

Upon completion of this phase, four Grid learning outcomes must be achieved:

1. Administrators will acquire an understanding of the styles of administrative behavior for the mobilization of human energies; All will study, evaluate and may have the opportunity to improve the quality of their supervision in work situations; All organized teams that need to achieve synergistic results were studied, evaluated and had the opportunity to strengthen the quality and nature of their teamwork; Intergroup situations that require cooperation and coordination were studied, evaluated and those responsible for such situations had the opportunity to strengthen the quality and nature of their coordinating efforts.

Phase 4: establishment of the organizational objectives by the top management of the organization by confirming business excellence.

This phase provides the business logic concepts and techniques necessary to move from an evolutionary or revolutionary approach to a systematic development model.

In Phase 4, members of the top management team define an ideal strategic model, which the company should resemble if it were truly excellent. The other members collect and gather data, and do their review and critique analysis. In this phase, members must "go outside the company to see what is happening inside it." It is the phase in which senior management defines the design of the strategic model to be followed by the organization as a whole.

Phase 5: Implementation through teams: it is about the implementation of the ideal organizational model, through the planned development.

Implementation requires each planning team to draw up its operational plan, as if its profit center were independent from the others, thoroughly examining every aspect of its activities.

Phase 6: evaluation of the results, that is, of the changes that have occurred, to stabilize the organizational objectives and establish new objectives for the future.

The systematic evaluation of the confirmation of business excellence serves to evaluate the performance and the existing conditions in each step of the development obtained, compared with the degree of excellence that is intended to be achieved.

b) LAWRENCE AND LORSCH MODEL.

Lawrence and Lorsch, evolved towards organizational development and systems theory. Within this conception, they propose a model of diagnosis and action for OD

1. CONCEPT OF DIFFERENTIATION AND INTEGRATION

A system is any unit that processes certain inputs in order to obtain certain products. The organization "is the coordination of different activities of individual taxpayers to carry out planned transactions with the environment." In this way, if several individual contributors are going to work in an organization they will necessarily have to divide the work. The division of labor causes the differentiation of the organs and this leads to the need for integration.

The differentiation depends on the internal characteristics that each group must develop to carry out planned transactions with the part of the environment that was assigned to it. But, differentiation requires integration, for which the various parties work together.

Integration brings two problems: which are the units that need to work together and how pressing is the demand and the need for interdependence between them. There is a strong inverse relationship between differentiation in integration: it becomes more difficult to achieve integration between them than when the individuals that comprise it have similar ways of thinking and behaving. Hence, the greater the differentiation, the more necessary the integration. The differentiation and integration model provides a set of concepts that enables training and understanding of the characteristics that an organization must have to be efficient in a particular set of environmental circumstances.

2. CONCEPT OF CONFRONTATION

Every social system can be approached in terms of groups of people engaged in exchanging their resources based on certain expectations. In this exchange of resources, if the feeling of reciprocity disappears or diminishes, a modification occurs within the system. The confrontation can create problems. When you want to change the organization according to the authors, the main problem areas lie in the following relationships:

3. STAGES OF THE DO

Diagnosis, planning of the action, implementation of the action and evaluation, Each type of confrontation must be submitted to the four stages of DO

1. Diagnosis: it is indicated with an inventory of the situation: from the moment the organization and its environment are confronted, the first structural alterations result; a second step is the state of the relationships between groups of participants, from which both structural and behavioral alterations arise, a third step is the diagnosis of the relationships between individual participants and the organization Planning of action: here the methods of changes are designed, able to steer system performance in the desired direction. The actions of change can be: Implementation of the action: it is the stage in which the commitment of the participants is obtained and the necessary resources are provided for the change Evaluation: it is the stage that closes the process, it works as a closed circuit,The result of the evaluation implies the modification of the diagnosis, which leads to new diagnoses, new planning, implementation, etc., and so on.There must be a moment when the process acquires its own dynamics and begins to develop without the need for interference. external.

c) REDDIN'S THREE-DIMENSIONAL THEORY OF MANAGEMENT EFFECTIVENESS

Reddin presents a theory of managerial effectiveness called the 3D theory. This is based on the fact that the manager is required to be effective in a variety of situations and his effectiveness can be measured to the extent that he is able to adapt his style, appropriately, to the changing situation, to Reddin, administrative effectiveness is the degree to which the manager meets the “product” (results) demands of his position in the organization, the manager's only task is to be effective. Its main concepts are:

1. MANAGEMENT EFFECTIVENESS

The managerial effectiveness must be evaluated in terms of product (result) and not of input; in other words, more for what the administrator achieves in terms of results than for what she actually does. Administrative effectiveness is not an aspect of the manager's personality, but a function of managing the situation. Performance is not what the manager does, but what he gets.

There is a big difference between the efficient manager and the effective manager namely:

2. MANAGEMENT STYLES

The core of 3-D theory is the claim that managerial behavior is made up of two basic elements:

Managers can emphasize one or another basic element. There is the “task-oriented” (OT) manager and the “relationship-oriented” (OR) manager; The figure below shows the four basic styles:

The four basic styles serve as a benchmark since managerial behavior does not always strictly conform to them. The related style is characterized by the unique relationship orientation, while the dedicated style is characterized by the unique task orientation. The detached style is distinguished by poor relationship and task orientation while the integrated style is characterized by integrated relationship and task orientation. These four basic styles can have a more effective or less effective equivalent, thus giving rise to eight managerial styles that constitute a respectively more effective or less effective use of the four basic styles. So:

Hence the three dimensions (3-D) of styles of managerial behavior in the 3-D model:

For Reddin, there is no ideal style. Each situation requires its own strategy. Effectiveness is not an administrative quality but the result of applying the most appropriate strategy or management style to the situation.

3. THE BASIC MANAGEMENT SKILLS

The 3-D theory aims to develop three basic managerial skills:

1. Situational sensitivity: it is the ability to diagnose situations Flexibility of style: it is the ability to adapt to the forces at play, once analyzed and diagnosed Skill of situational management: it is the ability of situational management, that is, the ability to modify a situation that needs be modified.

4. BASIC THEORETICAL CONCEPTS

3-D theory is based on five basic theoretical concepts:

1. Organizational change is a process of bringing managers together to exchange criteria on issues that should be discussed in a climate of trust and interest, visualizing the achievement of effectiveness, Executives are those who know or must set the direction for the organization; The program 3-D does not give a direction: it only proposes that efficiency be considered as a central value. An answer is sought «what to do to be effective in this situation? Executives don't apply everything they know. The solution is to give executives the opportunity to effectively apply what they know. The 3-D theory aims to create the conditions to achieve this; the change must involve all social units. An organization is made up of individuals, teams, etc. Everyone must participate in the process;Flexibility is a necessary condition for change, it must be encouraged and conditions must be created to establish it, if change is desired.

5. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EFFICIENCY AND SITUATION.

Administrative situations can be viewed as fields of forces exerted by superiors, subordinates, collaborators, organization and technology.

These are the aspects that a manager must recognize, change or react to in a given situation.

Effectiveness is the degree to which the executive achieves the desired results of his role. To achieve it, it is necessary to possess the three managerial skills (diagnosis, flexibility and situational management).

The author recommends that each executive analyze and verify what would be missing in the company if their function were simply abolished. This would identify your specific role for the company, Efficacy is the result of the product, not the input. An executive who accurately identifies his "areas of effectiveness" can set and achieve clear objectives. You can measure its effectiveness.

Reddin proposes that the executive also do the same in relation to his subordinates (three or four levels), checking their areas of effectiveness and concentrating on controlling the product (results) of each subordinate position instead of controlling the activities.

CRITICAL EVALUATION OF DO

The DO has provided TGA (General Administrative Theory) with a wide and rich literature on varied approaches.

The main criticisms of the DO are the following:

1. MAGICAL ASPECT OF DO

There are some magical characteristics of OD created from four myths:

1. The myth of the OD discipline: OD has been emphasized as a discipline based on the scientific method. Some authors consider that the use of sensitivity training and client-consultant relationships with areas belonging to the DO are actually areas of knowledge that it takes from other disciplines with very well defined fields of study; The myth of non-researchable variables: there seems to be some resistance to conventional research within the OD There is a contradiction between the claim that it is based on scientific knowledge and the resistance found in the use of scientific methods in research; The myth of novelty: there is a notion that OD is a new process or a set of new techniques that facilitate change. However, the methods and processes of D.O. they are relatively old. The myth of novelty adds a magical quality to DO that, as a new technique, is more effective than old ones and greatly facilitates the process of change; The Myth of Increased Efficiency: The authors of DO argue that their techniques increase the ability of the organization to address its objectives effectively. However, the results are really debatable. More authentic relationships between staff do not necessarily mean increased profits for the organization.They argue that their techniques increase the organization's ability to target its objectives effectively. However, the results are really debatable. More authentic relationships between staff do not necessarily mean increased profits for the organization.They argue that their techniques increase the organization's ability to target its objectives effectively. However, the results are really debatable. More authentic relationships between staff do not necessarily mean increased profits for the organization.

2. IMPRECISION IN THE FIELD OF DO.

The development of training t-groups in the laboratory and in other ways to increase interaction or group therapy led to the emergence of OD that became code for assigning programs and activities that came from various trends, within a new approach to learning. education and training. This impression in the field of OD makes it difficult to define.

3. EMPHASIS ON EMOTIONAL EDUCATION.

The DO focuses the training of skills in interpersonal relationship, based on the behavioral sciences, the DO is not concerned with management skills but only with human relations.

4. DISTORTED APPLICATIONS OF THE OD.

Many organizations approach the monocratic model based on the law of private property. The leaders of the organizations possess a power and high social and economic status. To the extent that legitimacy based on private property rights loses substance, leaders resort to procedures to better understand or improve their status quo and personal promotions, in many cases OD has been used as an instrument to ensure such objectives and its use is derived from the demonstration effect, which seeks much more external legitimation and its effects on the public imagination of the organization, than the internal one.