Before starting with the deep analysis about the general theory of systems, I consider the definition of the following concepts of great relevance; Theory and Systems in order to provide a better understanding to readers.
I will start with the term theory, defined as speculative knowledge considered independently of any application, while the term system refers to an organized and complex whole; a set or combination of things or parts that form a complex or unitary whole. It is a set of objects united by some form of interaction or interdependence.
The objective of this criticism is to analyze the characteristics of this theory and to present the applications and principles under which it operates, as well as the approaches that allow it to facilitate the unification of some fields of knowledge and the integration of modern organizational theory.
General systems theory states that the properties of systems cannot be meaningfully described in terms of their separate elements. The compression of systems only occurs when they are studied globally, involving all the interdependencies of their parts.
Ludwig von Bertalanffy was the first speaker of the general theory of systems, seeking an integrative methodology for the treatment of scientific problems, with this it is not intended to solve problems or try practical solutions, but to produce theories and conceptual formulations that can create conditions of application in empirical reality.
This theory does not pretend to look for analogies between the sciences, it tries to avoid the scientific superficiality that has stalled them, a very clear example is the extrapolation that exists within these disciplines.
Models of general systems theory
This theory is based on three basic premises and on two types of contributions.
The three basic premises are as follows: systems exist within systems, systems are open, and the functions of a system depend on its structure.
In the first premise, each system performs tasks in order to meet the objectives set on behalf of a higher unit, to which it belongs.
Based on this, I will dare to give as an example the functions that are carried out in relation to the agency where I work, which is formed as a system and at the same time belongs to the state government system.
The second premise is important because it presents a wide margin about the beneficiaries of the functions of a certain system, in it it is stated that all organizations, groups and individuals have access to the benefits offered by the system.
As you can see, this premise also applies to the example I used above.
Continuing with the previous example we can say that this premise is also applicable in the aforementioned dependency, because organized producers, groups or individuals can receive the benefits that the system grants.
And finally the third premise, which refers to the influence that the structure exerts on the functions carried out by a system, defining the structure as the relationship between the parts that make up the organizations, parts as an idea of sectors or areas (managements, departments, areas, divisions) that are interrelated and that obey certain norms that order and nurture them.
Placing this premise in the example, I can say that it has a well-defined structure that offers the necessary possibilities to achieve the objectives set by the nature of the system.
After a brief definition about each premise, I will begin to explain the contributions on which this theory is based, the semantic contributions and the methodological contributions, which I will deepen below, revealing their objectives and the functions they perform within a system.
Contributions of the model
Semantic contributions
Within the semantic contributions we find all those technical terms that in many cases can only be understood by people specialized in this field, which is why it represents a serious problem when interacting with the different disciplines involved in a project.
To solve this type of inconvenience, this theory aims to introduce a universal scientific language or semantics, which provides a better understanding to those involved in a specific project, the most prominent terms in this type of project are the following:
System, which is defined at the beginning of this document, although it is very important for me to argue that this concept includes others such as: inputs, processes and outputs, all of them are specialized functions that a system fulfills.
The inputs are the income of the system that can be material resources, human resources or information, they also constitute the starting force that supplies the system with its operational needs.
There are three types of entries, serial entries, random entries, and feedback entries.
The serial inputs: they are the result or the output of a previous system with which the system under study is directly related.
The random input: they represent potential inputs for a system and in them the term "random" is used from a statistical sense.
Finally the feedback input that refers to the reintroduction of a part of the outputs of the system itself.
The next function is the process, this transforms an input into an output, as such it can be a machine, an individual, a computer or a task performed by a member of the organization.
It is important to know how these transformations are carried out. Often times the processor can be designed by the administrator. This process is called "white box", when there are different combinations of inputs or their combination in different sequence orders, different output situations can arise and then the function of the process is called a "black box."
Then the outputs which are the results obtained from processing the inputs. Like inputs, these can take the form of products, services and information. They are the result of the operation of the system or, alternatively, the purpose for which the system exists.
The outputs of one system become the input of another, which will process it to turn it into another output, repeating this cycle indefinitely, based on this definition I can say that this function is the one that concludes with a specific process thus achieving the objective set from the first moment a project is started.
Relationships also play a great role in systems, because they represent the links that link the objects or subsystems that make up a complex system.
And they can be classified into three types: symbiotic, synergistic and superfluous.
Symbiotic relationships: are those in which the connected systems cannot continue to function alone. In turn, it can be subdivided into unipolar or parasitic, which is when one system (parasite) cannot live without the other system (plant); and bipolar or mutual, which is when both systems depend on each other.
The second type, that is; Synergic: it is a relationship that is not necessary for operation but that is useful, since its performance substantially improves the performance of the system. Synergy means "combined action." But, for systems theory the term goes beyond cooperative effort.
In this type of relationship, the cooperative action of semi-independent subsystems, taken together, produces a total product greater than the sum of their products taken independently.
And finally, Superfluous relationships: which are those that repeat other relationships.
The reason for superfluous relationships is reliability. These relationships increase the probability that a system will work all the time and not a part of it. It has a problem that is its cost, which is added to the cost of the system that without them cannot work.
The next concept is the system attribute, which defines the system as we observe it. Attributes can be defining or concomitant: defining attributes are those without which an entity would not be designated or defined as it is, so they are a fundamental part of the structure of a system.
Concomitant attributes, on the other hand, are those whose presence or absence does not establish any difference with respect to the use of the term that describes the unit, that is; If there is the absence of this type of attributes, it does not cause any change in the specific functions of a system.
The context always has a great relationship with the system because it exerts a great influence on it and simultaneously the system also influences the context but to a lesser extent, so a system will always be related to the surrounding context, that is, the set of objects outside the system.
The context to be analyzed depends fundamentally on the focus of attention that is set. This focus of attention, in terms of systems, is called the limit of interest, to determine this limit two separate stages would be considered:
- The determination of the context of interest, which is usually represented as a circle that encloses the system, and leaves the part of the context that does not interest the analyst outside the limit of interest. The determination of the scope of the limit of interest between the context and the system is what makes the relationships between the context and the systems and vice versa. It is possible that only some of these relationships are of interest, so there will be a limit of relational interest.
Determining the limit of interest is essential to mark the focus of analysis, since only what is within that limit will be considered.
The ranking of the different structures is known by rank according to their degree of complexity, each rank or hierarchy reveals the different levels that exist between the respective subsystems, thus acting as a clear indicator of the differences in the functions of a systems, determined by the level of difficulty, which is why the same models or similar methods cannot be applied at the different levels.
To apply the concept of range, the focus of attention must be used in an alternative way: the context and its level of range are considered or the system and its level of range are considered, in short, this concept indicates the hierarchy of the respective subsystems among themselves and their level of relationship with the larger system.
The Variables: Each system and subsystem contains an internal process that develops on the basis of the action, interaction and reaction of different elements that must necessarily be known.
Since this process is dynamic, each element that makes up or exists within systems and subsystems is usually referred to as a variable.
But not everything is as easy as it seems at first glance since not all variables have the same behavior but, on the contrary, depending on the process and its characteristics, they assume different behaviors within the same process according to the moment and the circumstances surrounding them.
One of the behaviors that a variable can have is that of a parameter, which is when a variable does not have changes under some specific circumstance, it does not mean that the variable is static far from it, since it only remains inactive or static in the face of a situation determined.
Another behavior is that of the operator, which are the variables that activate the others and manage to decisively influence the process so that it starts. It can be said that these variables act as leaders of the rest and therefore are privileged with respect to the other variables. Here is a clarification: the remaining variables are not only influenced by the operators, but they are also influenced by the rest of the variables and these also have an influence on the operators.
Feedback is one of the main elements in the functions of an open system and it occurs when the outputs of the system or the influence of the outputs of the system in the context, re-enter the system as resources or information, this allows the control of a system and that it take corrective measures based on the feedback information.
While the front feed is a form of control of the systems, where said control is carried out at the entrance of the system, in such a way that it does not have corrupt or bad entries, in this way as there are no bad entries in the system, the failures will not be a consequence of the inputs but of the processes that make up the system.
Homeostasis is another concept that is important to recognize, this is defined as the property of a system that defines its level of response and adaptation to the context, that is; It is the level of permanent adaptation of the system or its tendency to dynamic survival. Highly homeostatic systems undergo structural transformations to the same extent that the context undergoes transformations, both of which act as conditioning factors for the level of evolution.
And the entropy of a system is the wear that the system presents due to the passage of time or its operation. Highly entropic systems tend to disappear due to the wear generated by their systemic process. They must have rigorous control systems and mechanisms for review, reworking and permanent change, to avoid their disappearance over time.
In a closed system the entropy must always be positive. However, in open biological or social systems, entropy can be reduced or transformed into negative entropy, that is, a more complete organization process and the ability to transform resources. This is possible because in open systems the resources used to reduce the entropy process are taken from the external environment. Likewise, living systems remain in a stable state and can avoid increasing entropy and even develop into states of increasing order and organization.
Permeability, The permeability of a system measures the interaction that it receives from the environment, it is said that the greater or lesser permeability of the system it will be more or less open.
Systems that are closely related to the environment in which they develop are highly permeable systems, these and those with medium permeability are called open systems.
On the contrary, systems with almost zero permeability are called closed systems.
It is highly relevant to add that an integrated system is called the one in which its level of internal coherence causes a change in any of its subsystems to produce changes in the other subsystems and even in the system itself.
A system is independent when a change that occurs in it does not affect other systems.
Likewise, a system is said to be centralized when it has a nucleus that commands all the others, and these depend for their activation on the first, since by themselves they are not capable of generating any process.
On the contrary, decentralized systems are those where the command and decision nucleus is made up of several subsystems. In this case, the system is not so dependent, but may have subsystems that act as backup and that only come into operation when the system that should act in that case fails.
Centralized systems are more easily controlled than decentralized ones, they are more compliant, they require fewer resources, but they are slower to adapt to the context. On the contrary, decentralized systems have a greater speed of response to the environment but require more resources and more elaborate and complex coordination and control methods.
Adaptability: it is the property that a system has of learning and modifying a process, a state or a characteristic according to the modifications suffered by the context. This is achieved through an adaptation mechanism that allows responding to internal and external changes over time. For a system to be adaptable, it must have a fluid exchange with the environment in which it develops.
Maintainability: It is the property that a system has to keep itself constantly in operation. To do this, it uses a maintenance mechanism that ensures that the different subsystems are balanced and that the total system remains in balance with its environment.
Stability: A system is said to be stable when it can be kept in equilibrium through the continuous flow of materials, energy and information. The stability of the systems occurs as long as they can maintain their operation and work effectively (maintainability).
And to finish with the semantic contributions I will present the concepts of Optimization and sub-optimization:
Optimization is modifying the system to achieve the achievement of the objectives and Sub-optimization, on the other hand, is the reverse process, it occurs when a system does not reach its objectives due to the constraints of the environment or because the system has several objectives and they are exclusive, in said In this case, the scope of the objectives should be restricted or those of less importance should be eliminated if they are exclusive with other more important ones.
Methodological contributions
The second class of contributions on which the general theory of systems is based are the methodological contributions, in them are the hierarchies of all the systems of the universe according to the perspective of Kenneth Boulding which presents the following hierarchical levels.
- First level, static structure. It can be called the level of reference frames. Second level, simple dynamic system. Considers necessary and predetermined movements. It can be called a working clock, third level, control mechanism or cybernetic system. The system regulates itself to maintain its balance. Fourth level, "open system" or self-structured. On this level it starts to diferenciate life. It can be considered cell level. Fifth level, genetic-social. It is characterized by plants Sixth level, animal system. It is characterized by its increasing mobility, teleological behavior and self-awareness. Seventh level, human system. It is the level of the individual being, considered as a system with consciousness and ability to use language and symbols. Eighth level,social system or system of human organizations constitutes the next level, and considers the content and meaning of messages, the nature and dimensions of the value system, the transcription of images into historical records, subtle artistic symbolizations, music, poetry and the complex range of human emotions ninth level, transcendental systems. They complete the levels of classification: these are the last and absolute, the unavoidable and unknown, which also present systematic structures and interrelations.transcendental systems. They complete the levels of classification: these are the last and absolute, the unavoidable and unknown, which also present systematic structures and interrelations.transcendental systems. They complete the levels of classification: these are the last and absolute, the unavoidable and unknown, which also present systematic structures and interrelations.
Within these contributions the systemic isomorphism model is immersed, with which it seeks to integrate the relationships between phenomena of the different sciences. The detection of these phenomena allows to build applicable models for the different areas of science.
It is intended by successive comparisons, a methodological approach, while facilitating the identification of the equivalent or common elements, and allowing a one-to-one correspondence between the different sciences.
As evidence that there are general properties between different systems, their structural similarities are identified and extracted.
These elements are the essence of the application of the isomorphism model, that is, the correspondence between principles that govern the behavior of objects that, although intrinsically different, in some aspects register effects that may require the same procedure.
Procedural model or complex adaptive system
Another model is the procedural model or the complex adaptive system, this model implies by association the prior application of the range model.
Since organizations are within level 8, it criticizes and achieves the demolition of existing models both within sociology and within administration.
Buckley, categorizes existing models into two types:
- those of extraction and mechanical origin, which he calls the equilibrium model; those of extraction and biological origin, which he calls organismic or homeostatic models.
Buckley says that “… the equilibrium model is applicable to types of systems that are characterized by losing organization when moving towards an equilibrium point and subsequently tend to maintain that minimum level within relatively narrow disturbances. Homeostatic models are applicable to systems that tend to maintain a relatively high level of organization despite constant tendencies to decrease it. The procedural or complex adaptive system model is applied to systems characterized by the development or evolution of the organization; as we shall see, they benefit from disturbances and the variety of the environment and in fact depend on them.
While certain systems have a natural tendency to equilibrium, level 8 systems are characterized by their morphogenic properties, that is to say that instead of seeking a stable equilibrium they tend to a permanent structural transformation. This process of permanent structural transformation constitutes the prerequisite for level 8 systems to be conserved actively and efficiently, in short it is their reason for survival.
It is important to comment that an organization is a socio-technical system included in a broader one, which is the society with which it interacts, influencing each other. It can also be defined as a social system, made up of individuals and work groups that respond to a certain structure and within a context that they partially control, develop activities applying resources in pursuit of certain common values.
To continue addressing this issue it is necessary to publicize the subsystems that make up a company, first of all I will present the psychosocial subsystem, which is composed of individuals and groups in interaction, this subsystem is formed by individual behavior and motivation, the relationships of the status and role, group dynamics and systems of influence.
The second is the technical subsystem that refers to the knowledge necessary for the development of tasks, including the techniques used to transform inputs into products.
The last subsystem is the administrative one, which relates the organization to its environment and establishes objectives, develops plans and operations through the design of the structure and the establishment of control processes.
To carry out the application of TGS in the analysis of the system, it is necessary to analyze the situation. At this stage, the analyst becomes aware of the system, covering the aspects of its origin, objective and trajectory.
For this, it is necessary to carry out the definition of the objectives, where the analyst tries to determine what it has been required for since in general the effects are raised but not the causes.
The second step is the formulation of the work plan, in it, the analyst sets the limits of interest of the study to be carried out, the methodology to be followed, the material and human resources that he will need, at this point the time and even the cost are administered of the same, this stage is also known as the service proposal and from its approval the methodology is followed.
The survey is the next step in this stage, the analyst collects the most relevant information regarding the system and the information that makes up the limit of interest.
In the diagnosis that is the following, the analyst must measure the effectiveness and at the same time the efficiency of the system that is being studied, understanding by effectiveness the capacity of the system to achieve the objectives, while efficiency is when the system achieves objectives with a positive cost-benefit ratio.
In the event that these aspects are not being met in the system, the analyst must make the necessary changes to the system's methods, if a system is not effective, the analyst must change the system, and if a system is efficient, the analyst will only be able to optimize it..
Design: the analyst designs the new system, there are two moments to carry out the design of the system.
The first is the global design in which you determine the output, files, inputs of the system, make a cost calculation and list the procedures.
The global design must be submitted for approval, the global design approved, we go to the next step, which is the detailed design.In this step, the analyst develops in detail all of the procedures listed in the global design and formulates the organizational structure which is apply to said procedures.
The penultimate step is the implementation of the system, which means putting it into practice, this can be implemented in three ways: global, in phases and in parallel.
The last point is the follow-up and control in this the results of the system are verified by implementing and applying the necessary actions to correct or adjust the problem.
The Control Method serves to reduce the amount of information received by decision-makers, without diminishing the information content. The three basic forms of this control method are:
The Variation Report: this form of variation requires that the data that represent the actual events be compared with others that represent the planned events, in order to determine the difference. The variation is then controlled with the control value, to determine whether or not the fact should be reported. The result of the procedure is that only those who make decisions about events or activities that deviate significantly from the plans are informed, so that they can take the necessary measures.
Programmed Decisions: Another application of a control system involves the development and implementation of programmed decisions. A significant part of the technical decisions and a small part of the tactical decisions involve repetitive and routine decisions. By designing the information system to execute those routine decisions, the analyst gives managers more time to spend on other, less structured decisions.
Control is listed as one of the five corporate subsystems (organization, planning, coordination and direction are the remaining ones) which have a close relationship with the control aspect.
The entire administrative process follows, it must be considered as a circular movement, in which all the subsystems are intricately linked, the relationship between planning and control is very close since the manager sets the objective and also rules, before the which actions are contrasted and evaluated. It is necessary to see the control to determine if the assignments and relationships in the organization are being fulfilled as planned.
Characteristics of closed and open systems
After presenting the most important characteristics of systems theory as well as the principles and objectives on which it is based, it is necessary to make the following comparison between these two types of systems: open systems and closed systems.
But before I will clarify what each one means, this classification is carried out taking into account the nature of each one, Closed systems are those that do not receive any type of environmental influence, while open systems have exchange relations with the environment through multiple inputs and outputs.
It is important to know that the open system is perfectly applicable to the business organization. The organization is a system created by man and maintains a dynamic interaction with its environment.
Within my comparison, these were the aspects that I considered most important in addition to some that I mentioned earlier:
- The open system constantly interacts with the environment in a dual way, that is, it influences and is influenced. The closed system does not interact. The open system can grow, change, adapt to the environment and even reproduce under certain environmental conditions. The closed system does not. It is typical of the open system to compete with other systems, the closed system does not.
Within these comparisons we can clearly see the advantages that the open system has over the closed system, all organizations with open systems have the following characteristics.
- Probabilistic and non-deterministic behavior, organizations as part of a larger society, made up of smaller parts, interdependence of the parts, homeostasis or "equilibrium state", frontier or limit, morphogenesis and resistance.
According to the Schen model, the open system is one that interacts with the external environment that has a series of objectives or multiple functions that is made up of a set of dynamic subsystems with each other, in addition to the fact that the latter are independent, they always exist within a dynamic environment forming relationships between organizations and the environment that surrounds it.
From a personal perspective, I believe that open systems are essential for the business organization because they allow interaction with the outside environment, and also allow tasks to be carried out in a minimum of time, thus providing a quality service and a better response to customer demands. As explained by Schen and part of the systems theory of Ludwig von Bertalanffy.
This type of systems are very accessible so it is applicable in many organizational fields, it is applied in the educational field, in the health field and especially where it stands out most is in the commercial and economic field. For example:
General systems theory is a useful concept for nursing staff in caring for clients. That it has been adopted from the field of biology to explain family processes and their effects on the development of the personality. Personality theorists generally believe that the usual cause of mentall disease is the result of two factors: the genetic and physiological inheritance of the effects of the family environment on the child during infancy and childhood. In order to understand the importance of the multiple forces and dynamics that occur in families, mental health theorists turned the scientific field of general systems theory to describe family processes.
conclusion
Finally, I can only say that in an environment where speed and change are great, some organizations will have to disappear because they do not comply with what is necessary for the environment: their products no longer meet the needs, desires and demands of the context..
Organizations that have an open system offer the environment the products it needs and if it is the case, create in it, the need for said products, because only in this way guarantees the absorption of the products and the provision of inputs, while the systems Closed, they will not be able to survive because they cannot respond effectively to continuous and rapid changes in the environment.
This theory presents a model with a high degree of application, based on an open system capable of collecting information from the environment that surrounds it in order to take into account the main needs of society and, based on this, to satisfy the various demands.
In reality, what this model intends is that clients participate in the formation and creation of organizations, collecting the different points of view, to use them in the elaboration of products that allow said organization to compete within the commercial field and function as a company qualified to provide quality services.
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