Introduction
In the search for the efficiency or effectiveness of an organization, there is a recurring need to make an analysis of its operation, which is also essential to achieve truly effective decisions that lead to the achievement of the purposes that encourage them effectively and efficiency, always considering the protection of the environment in which the organization is located.
To carry out an objective analysis of the effectiveness and / or efficiency of organizational management, it is necessary to take into consideration all the elements that intervene in its operation, namely: actors or participants, social structure, goals and purposes, tasks and technologies and environment.
- Actors or Participants: They are individuals or groups of individuals who contribute to the achievement of the objectives of the system and obtain benefits from the results of organizational management. Social Structure: Defined as such, the permanent relationships that exist between the participants of an organization. Purposes and Goals: Results that the participants seek to achieve through the development of technological tasks and the performance of the organization. Technology and Tasks: As its name indicates, these are the work processes that allow the organization to convert its inputs into outputs or results. Environment: Technological, cultural and social context in which the organization is inserted.
An unavoidable premise when undertaking the analysis of an organization is to categorize it based on its general characteristics. One of the most widely used classifications today, divides organizational systems into three categories:
- Rational Systems: The organization is assumed as a collectivity oriented to the achievement of very specific objectives and whose behavior is governed by a formalized structure. These systems have a unitary administration with an extremely formalized hierarchical structure, whose technological tasks are optimization (minimization / maximization), through decision trees and standard operating procedures. Rational systems do not take into account the interaction with the environment, since given the high degree of formalization of their processes, the environment does not have a significant influence on their behavior standards, their results, their effectiveness and their efficiency. Natural Systems: The organization is assumed as a community whose participants have multiple and dissimilar interests, there are conflicting forces and consensus on the fundamental tool for decision-making. However, despite the internal contradictions that are generated due to the dissimilar interests of the participants, all of them recognize the importance of perpetuating the organization as an indispensable resource to achieve its purposes, forming coalitions. In these systems, management is exercised in such a way that roles are alternated according to the demands of the environment, within a more emergent and informal structure, characterized by norms of belonging and general codes of behavior. In this type of system the objectives are multiple and conflicting,Therefore, in order to achieve them, decisions are made by contingency, seeking effectiveness, rather than efficiency, giving little importance to the environment.Open Systems: Made up of multiple organizations that interact within a specific field of activity, among which there are close collaboration links in the acquisition and use of material resources and the environment has a relevant impact on the results of organizational management. These systems are characterized by the fact that a high number of participants intervene: shareholders, suppliers, employees and masses of consumers. Consequently, its social structure is significantly permeated by the outside world, its beliefs and preferences, which determines that the objectives of the system are survival and legitimization in the environment, from a continuous adaptation to the demands of the environment, the which has a determining role in these systems.
All the elements exposed up to here allow to make a correct selection of the theory by means of which the analysis of the effectiveness and efficiency of the results of the management of an organization will be carried out. In this article we will address in a general way some of these theories, providing the reader with the essential elements that differentiate them and a reference about the feasibility of their application, from specifying four essential aspects:
- When each of these theories is applicable. What are their basic theoretical arguments. What is the dominant inference pattern in each of them. What management strategies are applied in each one of them.
Theories for organizational analysis
Rational Actor Theory
This theory is applicable only when there is a centralized or unified actor with consistent preferences, a lot of information about the possible results of each action or decision; where the goals are very clear and are framed in a certain period of time.
This theory is basically based on the following arguments: Existence of a single actor or group of actors who face a problem, with well-defined purposes, and whose solution alternatives and the consequences of each of these are fully known in terms of cost or benefits.
The Rational Actor Theory uses Action as the dominant pattern of inference, expressed in terms of optimization of the results (maximization / minimization). To do this, he resorts to wise selection based on the analysis of the available information and the knowledge of the possible results. Consequence Management Strategy or Consequence Logic.
In the context of this theory for organizational analysis, a variant called Appropriate Logic can be used, which consists of defining an acceptance level from which a solution can be considered selectable, even when it does not meet the requirement of yielding the results. optimal. In other words, a decision rule is established, according to which any alternative that meets it is considered acceptable. This variant can be used in decisions where there is a certain tradition, cultural norms or previously existing and accepted rules, procedures or algorithms, which the decision-makers consider acceptable for the solution of the problem being analyzed. In this variant, the existing ambiguity,It is managed by matching the result of the proposed solution with the established satisfaction criteria (it is good enough).
Theory of organizational processes
This theory is applied when an organization is clearly divided into positions and work routines, or when the problem can be modeled. This way of approaching the analysis of an organization is based on the possibility of dividing a problem into components, actions or tasks to later coordinate the actions of the actors, taking advantage of the special competencies of each one of them and the existence of standard operating procedures for to be solving the problems by parts, attending in a sequential way to the fulfillment of the objectives, using as a guide the routines available for each of the organizational processes.
Consequently, the inference pattern used by this theory is the sequential use of the standard processes corresponding to the type of problem that exist, so the intervention of the actors will depend on the demands of said processes. Based on this, the problems are matched with the rules that allow their solution and the special abilities of the actors according to their area of competence, that is, Administration according to the Rules.
Coalition theory
This theory is applicable when the existence of multiple actors concur, with dissimilar preferences and identities and none of them can carry the objective to the path of events without the participation of the others. Approaching the analysis of an organization through the Theory of Coalitions, consists of taking into consideration the conceptions of the different actors about the existing problems; the different solution options for them and the resources that each one of the actors can contribute, to conduct a negotiation process between them that leads to the adoption of mutually advantageous agreements.
The fundamental inference pattern of this theory is negotiation and the management strategy that is applied is Relationship Management, based on knowing your interests, objectives, strengths and weaknesses, to manipulate this knowledge in the negotiation process. In this negotiation process, the fundamental objective is the search for consensus among all the participants.
Theory of organized anarchies
The theory of Organized Anarchies is applied with there is a torrent of problems, possible solutions and participants that collide in the framework of decision making. The basic fundamentals are located in the differentiation of dissimilar problems that are integrated into the stream and the process by which the problems, solutions and participants are connected, taking into consideration the deadline for their solution.
For Organized Anarchies to have satisfactory results, it is necessary to maximize the energy of the participants, creating positive synergies that speed up the solution process; They help to quickly discard extremely complex solutions and generate selection opportunities that satisfy the interests of the organization. Consequently, the management strategy to be applied is Indirect Situation Management, where the role of leadership is focused on creating the optimal conditions to optimize the creative search process for the solution, given the lack of structure and the growing number of problems to solve. In other words, the administrative strategy is to manage the group so that it reaches itself to the selection of the most effective and viable solutions.
Organizational learning theory
This theory is applicable when there is effective feedback in the organization and problem solving is promoted from the generalization of positive results; the success of previous experiences and the adaptation of the rules to the current reality of the organization, based on collective knowledge.
The theoretical foundations of Organizational Learning focus on the organization's ability to learn routines, generalize the knowledge acquired through practical experiences and the effort to maintain a permanent adaptation to the new demands of its environment and a process of continuous improvement of its results. from practical experience. According to the approach of this theory, the organization is intelligent.
The management strategy consists of creating lateral communication chains that allow the knowledge to be generalized more directly and quickly; systematically create and nurture the memory of the organization; create spaces for the transmission of experiences and the socialization of successes and discoveries. The use of this strategy supposes the search of a greater and more effective communication; promoting improvisation and collective search; the systematic generalization of good practices and knowledge to share.
Theory of organizational culture
It is applicable when the cognitive and normative aspects of the social structure constitute a guide for the behavior and actions of the members of the organization, which includes informal relationships and the intrinsic motives of each one of them. This theory is based on the fact that actors need to express and maintain a certain identity, and the means to achieve this is the organizational culture.
Through the artifacts and rites of the organizational culture, the sense of belonging of its members is sustained and it manages to align its objectives and motives with the mission, goals and purposes of the organization. The administrative strategy to be applied within the framework of this theory consists of compelling the members of the organization to promote their own culture, starting from the formation of an ideology (shared vision) and the achievement of the assimilation of this by the members of the organization, through the rituals and artifacts that express it (logo, commercial motto, brand, uniform, etc.) Administration through values and paradigms.
Resource dependency theory
This theory is applied when the organization seeks to achieve growing autonomy and ensure its stability in the environment. Its basic foundations are located in the correct management of the dependency relationships of the resources in the specific environment in which each organization is inserted, in order to guarantee the continuity of its operation.
The dominant pattern of inference is the search for resource opportunities and the making of agreements on the basis of mutually advantageous negotiations that allow you to minimize uncertainty and guarantee stability in the operation of the system. In other words, the dominant pattern of inference in this theory is external adaptation.
Within the framework of this theory, two different strategies can be applied. One of them is the creation of reserves (Buffer), maintaining a certain level of essential resources as a reserve for an emergency. The following actions are framed within the reservation strategy: coding, collection or storage, estimation and adaptation of the scales. The other strategy consists of establishing collaborations and cooperations (Bridge), based on the following set of possible actions: cooperation, partial absorption, total absorption, strategic alliances, joint projects or associations.
Theory of organizations in the form of work networks
This theory is applicable when inter-organizational relationships are critical for the optimal functioning of the system; that is, when the purpose of the organization demands the effective management of collaborative, contracting, service or supply relationships with other organizations.
These organizations focus on the interrelationships in the work network, what position each element of the network has in relation to the purpose of the organization and how the context can affect the development of its strategy. Based on the above, it is possible to form dissimilar work networks, according to the interests and specific purposes of each organization.
Consequently, the dominant pattern of inference in this theory is the identification of complementary strengths, the formation of alliances and the establishment of norms of reciprocal collaboration, aimed at achieving all those mutual benefits that are possible; all with the aim of guaranteeing the stability of the fundamental activity of the organization, by assuring secondary tasks or services and / or creating an effective distribution network for its products or services to its target market.
The administrative strategy to be applied within the framework of these organizations involves the following actions: carefully selecting potential partners; establish very active and informal communication channels; coordinate the activities of the members through a group of specialized professionals; align all members of the network with the culture of the organization; eliminate competition; create open information; form a joint administration focused on the coordination of tasks and reinforce the norms of collaboration and reciprocity.
Neo-institutional theory
This theory is applied when the level of analysis of the organization is an institutional field focused on compliance with the cultural demands or norms of the environment in which it is inserted. In other words, this theory applies where the organization is structured according to the external culture to ensure survival and reduce ambiguity.
For this type of organization, its legitimacy in the environment is a key resource, even at the expense of its own efficiency. Consequently, its dominant pattern of inference is the structuring of the organization in accordance with the rules and regulations of its environment, where the processes can be strategic, planned, or known and taken for granted.
The management strategy that is applied within the framework of this theory, consists of mediating through the systematization, classification, and disconnection between the organizational elements. External pressure, exerted through myths or cultural schemes, leads to organizational isomorphism and the acquisition of legitimacy. As a result, management uses coercive, mimetic, and normative procedures to achieve the isomorphism required to legitimize itself in its environment.
Organizational Ecology Theory
Organizational Ecology is applicable when the level of analysis of an organization is a population of organizations and the primary concept of analysis is inter-business competition and the environmental section. This theory is based on the existence of an internal of recurrent changes and a population of organizations structured in niches of isomorphic companies that struggle to establish a temporary environmental balance. In this environment, companies differentiate and compete, being selected and reproduced in the environment until the niche exhausts its assimilation capacity.
The dominant pattern of inference in this theory consists in the competition of organizations to reach a place in the market niche in which they have been located, where all organizations are engaged in the same form of activity and their results are interdependent, therefore that become isomorphic with the remaining occupants of their niche. In this environment, not all existing firms in a niche are selected, especially those that do not compete and do not take into account the changes introduced by the new firms that are trying to insert into it.
Adapting to the environment is tough, so maintaining the effort to be competitively isomorphic in an organizational niche is the main administrative strategy to be used within the framework of this theory. Organizations must achieve success by establishing their fit with a niche, for which they need to maintain up-to-date knowledge about what are the characteristics of the population in which they are within, what is their composition, what changes are taking place, to decide then whether it makes sense to adopt a generalist or specialized orientation.
Conclusions
All of the above, allows us to make some final considerations about how to approach the analysis of an organization to make its operation more effective and efficient. The first refers to the fact that organizational analysis cannot be assumed empirically, by trial and error, since there are factors that determine the way to act in each specific case and condition the level of effectiveness to be achieved. in said analysis process.
As a consequence, to approach the analysis of an organization it is essential to characterize it according to the type of system, its components and the characteristics of the environment in which it is inserted. Only an analysis of the characteristics of the organizational system, its fundamental activity, the actors involved in it, its social structure, its goals and the technology it has; as well as the characteristics and demands of its environment, it provides the necessary information to properly select the theory of analysis to apply in each case.
Once the applicable theory for a given case has been selected, its theoretical foundations must be taken into consideration, which should be the dominant pattern of inference and the corresponding management strategy, since these determine the effectiveness of its application, and consequently, the success of the organization, in terms of efficiency.
The theories for organizational analysis provide us with a theoretical-practical framework for solving problems related to the effectiveness and efficiency of an organization, guiding administrative actions to achieve success, considering both the system and the business environment in which it operates. your activity.
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