I summarize
A fundamental idea in Theory of Restrictions (TOC), is that every tangible system, as for example, an undertaking with lucrative ends, must be less restrictive. A restriction is an imperative or system of getting more than clamming.
Or the manager interested in obtaining more profits from managing the melhor as restrictions. It is not safe: ou or individual controls the restrictions or controls. In this way, it will be determined to be a “system” (ganho) of the system, it will be recognized and controlled or not.
It can be seen, most two businesses as a sequence of interdependent processes in the chain that transforms the inputs (inventories) in vendções vendáveis (ganho). Na TOC, an analogy is frequently drawn between a system of this type and a current one. Must be identified or the most failed and you can concentrate efforts to strengthen this is the only one, where or first step to identify or the most failed that is to restriction, second, do not try to overload excessively or system, or third, concentrate the efforts of first elo mais fraco e finally, o quarto, you made an effort to first forem bem happened, or elo mais fraco will finally melhorar até o ponto em que não seja mais o elo mais fraco.
1 - Introduction
A Theory of Restrictions Eliyahu M. Goldratt and Jeff Cox, foi introduced in 1984 did not read “A Meta”, where he expounded a management theory about or disguised a novel in respect of a factory manager. This factory was having great problems and was an imminent expert in being dated by the director. The factory is saved by deferring praised traditional management practices, which are raising terrific difficulties.
Or the traditional system of accounting for costs and reports of variations of the company is responsible for many problems that the factory was struggling with. Instead of concentrating efforts on activities that would increase profits, or the traditional accounting system focuses mainly on counterproductive efforts to reduce unit production costs. They are now real or unsuccessful in operations, or a management accounting system that has invariably been sent to inadequate sinais in the form of unfavorable custodial variations.
2 - A crise na Accounting of traditional Custos
With all the changes taking place, we can ask: or what happens in the Accounting of Custos and in the Management Accounting? Are your theories valid? At the same time in the eighties, as indicated by Kaplan apud Prada (1995; p.93), a managerial accounting that emerged in the 1950s used disciplines such as probability, statistics, etc. to fulfill six basic objectives: to calculate or guard the product and to elaborate useful information for the decision making of planning and control.
Based on the assuming production of these traditional models, our production assumptions were based on a mature product with established characteristics, state-of-the-art technology, and passive optimization models on the basis of fixed quality and uncertainty are assumed to be exogenous variables to the model.
For two years, for the manufacturers, eighty theoretical models will be answered in a new situation. Japanese companies apply models that, in lieu of optimizing for a given set of parameters, optimizing each other, obtaining in this way accentuated competitive advantages. For example, instead of calculating an inventory policy that minimizes costs with some given parameters, such as the adjustment time of a new production or the uncertainty of supplying materials, or a new Japanese approach tries to eliminate the reasons for maintaining inventories, reducing The tempos of adjustment and diminishing uncertainty demand.
For Horngren apud Prada (1995p; 94), the advanced manufacturing technologies assumed that they were moving into a fundamental operation of the company, a move that would have to carry with it a profound transformation, not an accounting system that would accompany these operations in order to achieve three objectives: Exata custo custo two productos, um melhor control the existing costs and a simplification of two systems of costs.
From a managerial point of view, Kaplan (1993; p. 210) said that “the accounting should be on the basis of questions that the administration should be afraid of answering, it is not unreasonable to raise the questions that the administration itself is curious enough to want to see answered ”.
He also said that “the accounting for the administration is not the administration, and it should not be confused with it. But it can be done to auxiliary accounting for management purposes. We can assist the administration with the number of jobs that have been carried out.
You keep up to date systems, contudo, hide problems or sinalizam non-existent problems, as, for example, when fazem traditional products with high volumes seem very deficient, for two very many products new and low volumes diverted for them.
3 - Obsolescência da Contabilidade de Custos.
The behavior of two companies for two years has changed significantly. Corbett (1997; p.33) points out that “hoje em dia a participação da mão-de-obra direta nos custos totais vem diminuindo; In many cases it is not more than 10%. In the same way, due to the fact that a large majority of companies continue to use this as the sole basis for allocation, this is continuing to use direct labor as the basis for taxing indirect manufacturing costs. "
Or the same author says that I am betting for that fate as a cause for the accounting of customs atuais not to provide the information for the decision-making. It shapes how it is, it only caters to the objective of external demonstrations. The true objective of management accounting is clear. We use distorted information and, consequently, we make wrong decisions.
In addition, the most direct work is not paid for by the unit produced, and the indirect costs of manufacturing, which are only taxed between the products, now only two more costs of companies. Com isso, an approximation feita hair rateio deixou of being olive.
Daily leafing on large amounts of waste does not vary directly as the volume of production; In two cases, only a raw material behaves in such a way.
Those problems, to managerial accounting, will have to be solved by increasing the existing paradigm. According to Corbett (1997; p.34), “he expanded the councils by accounting for issues, creating more complex methodologies, rather than continuing based on our own principles. Pressupôs-se that or that was wrong in the managerial accounting was or tried to be appraised only by a base rateio, to mó-of direct work, and assim foi stipulated that several bases rateio deveriam be used ".
As the new methodologies of accounting of costs are subject to assumption that all the costs are different in relation to some activity, please indicate the number of production lots, number of orders, etc.
A obsolescence gives accounting of costs second Corbett (1997; p.34) “I did not see because he used only a base rate, but also because he rates the costs among the products. The obsolescence of the rateio was due because, despite the fact that they are priced, in whatever type or system of rateio, they do not vary directly with the volume of production and / or with changes in mix or with any other variable. Being assim, to alocação só serve to confuse us and fazer com that we make irrational decisions.
Or council of custodial produto na Teoria das Restrições, deixa to exist and, in this way, or decision-making process based on global operational measures. Together with his proposals, or mentor of the theory of restrictions, he carries out a severe criticism of cost accounting, mentioning that the form of a powerful solution that allowed or increased companies, has not passed, but rather that it may become a disaster.
According to Guerreiro (1996; p.60), “it is established or an argument that the cost of direct work, at a time when accounting for costs was invented, was about ten times greater than the overhead costs., being that the page is rapidly approaching the time when it will be just a tenth day overhead overhead. "
Or the same author added that it is important to highlight that outdated cost accounting that Goldratt feared observed in companies and only in accounting of costs that were practiced in companies, ou se, should not be confused with true accounting of costs that could and should be praticadas nas organizações.
4 - A Managerial Accounting and its role
The competition is becoming more and more circumscribed, demanding that companies adapt quickly. They need to change to a standard. The organization needs to be prepared for this new challenge, which before any other thing is a change of mind. Every time more or more it can last for a short time, at any rate it has been able to be dissipated in a very short time. The organization, as well as the people, have to learn to lead with that “nova mudança”.
This move can only be accompanied by abandoning the traditional administrative councils and using new councils. In this dinner that Goldratt supplies the ferramentas so that we can make this revolution happen, which is the reasoning process of Theory of Restrictions - TOC.
In this context Corbett (1997; p.20) says that “the reasoning processes are based only on a learning organization, to create an organization that causes changes and, consequently, that a process of continuous updating enters. Goldratt supplies the ferramentas to make it happen or that the gurus give you the administration ".
Those changes do not have a business environment and have an impact on managerial accounting. This evident physical impact is when we analyze the severe criticism that we see in management accounting.
By isso Berliner & Brimson (1988, p.8) stated that: “an explosion in technology is changing based on competitiveness around the world. To be able to compete, companies have to offer sophisticated products to a low price, with high quality and excellent service to the consumer. A particularly important role, but not much is understood, or the system of accounting of costs. Hoje, the information is not being provided in a way that can help the administration to identify, prioritize and solve problems. Production managers are being oriented to make important decisions despite the information available to you, not only because it is relevant. ”
A managerial accounting for Corbett (1997; p.22) should make a connection between the two managers and the profit of the company, so that you can know which direction to take. Measuring rightly or the impact of the locals not performing globally, the management accounting will also serve as or motivating agent, which rewards those people who contribute significantly to the objective of the company. The main objective of the management accounting is to provide information so that managers can decide which one or which is best for the company.
5 - Obsolescência dos Management Accounting Systems
A managerial accounting hoje em dia is losing credibility. With all these changes not environment, the nou mudou quase nothing. This is the face of the information provided by the traditional accounting system which is inconsistent. As the constant changes, the companies can not be distorted information. It is your management accounting that is not adapted to the new years and you will not know how to compete. A management accounting record is not required for the event, but a prerequisite.
This is referred to by Kaplan & Johnson (1991, p.4) as saying that “an excellent management accounting system does not guarantee the success of the market markets (…). But an ineffective managerial accounting system can undermine or develop products, or improve processes and marketing efforts. Where a management accounting system prevails, or the best result occurs when administrators understand that the system is irrelevant and deviate from creating personalized information systems. ”
Segundo Coelho (1999; p.26) a managerial accounting will be effective if it is included in the information system you have integrated into the business management system, which is the one that gathers and consolidates all the relevant information necessary to manage the organization, and will be considered or Control how to study new possibilities or analyze new ways that make it possible to reduce costs, speed up operations, maximize profits and maintain the quality of products and services provided by the company.
Tin have been ignored at some time ago, in management accounting, as changes have been made to production. It needs to evolve, it needs to adapt to new years.
Kaplan (1993; p. 177) said that "the obsolescence of two contemporary management accounting systems must be a source of great problems for the administrators of large diversified organizations".
Contemporary systems of accounting of costs and management control, which are not necessary for the efficiency and profitability of internally managed transactions. In consequence, the administrators are not obtaining information that will help you in the comparison between appropriate transactions of costs and profitability, as well as the ability to “manage visibly” to effectively manage the infinity of transactions that most of the hierarchy complex is seriously compromised.
To the top administration when receiving accurate information on efficiency and effectiveness of internal operations, the organization will become competitive with smaller and more focused organizations.
The information needs of concentrated companies on a wide range of activities or products according to Kaplan (1995; p. 178) "are less than those who seek to administer multiple stages of the conversion process, or that offer diverse lines of products and services. heterogeneous. The focused organizations will become highly efficient in their limited product segments or varieties of production processes, surpassing the diversified organizations incapable of continuing to value the relative profitability of their various activities and, generally, independent of each other ”.
Segundo Corbett (1997; p.23) there are some proposals of different methodologies for a management accounting that try to solve this loss of relevance. Here I will discuss the TOC methodology, which I consider to be the best proposition for a management accounting, which is more in line with a new vision of the company, as compared to the predominant paradigm in management accounting, this is, a cost accounting.
6 - A Teoria das Restrições - Theory of Constraints - TOC
In the 70s, the Israeli physicist Eliyahu Goldratt, elaborated a method of administration of the production, he was intrigued as traditional methods, being that we are not the same with nenhuma logic.
He did not start in the 1980s, but he did not dedicate himself to making more or his disseminating method. This book is criticized or the traditional method of administration, where it is even accounted for as a consideration or an inimigo number of a competitiveness in the non-western world, which according to Corbett (1997; p 39) “ele ganhou muitos opponents to Theory of constraints - TOC, but also chamou has to pay attention to the weight of the people who do not accredit more than the accounting of costs as a provider of information ".
The book is written in the form of romance, where the author's experiences are misdirected, in the elaboration of methods of optimization of industrial processes, undertaking the Optimum Production Technology (OPT) program, which is a methodological application of Operational Research, which is considered a variant gives JIT philosophy.
Segundo Goldratt apud Padoveze (1994; p.387), “or that determines a resistance, 'a força' by a current (um processo manufacturing, for example), é seu elo fraco. There is only one failure that is correct. This failure fails or reduces the performance of the whole to current (of all or process). That restriction ou gargalo é that must be immediately locked. Eliminated at first restriction, other restrictions, other terms of the current, it will appear, and so on, continuously, it will improve and strengthen the production and business process ”.
Inside the OPT philosophy is an inventory and deliberately maintained only to prevent you from being restricted or forced to carry on or continually develop the production flow and prevent sales. Except for those cases, keep the JIT philosophy of the nonexistent rapier goal.
Goldratt apud Padoveze (1994; p. 387) expressed, I bound in a violent way, that “the accounting of costs was not worthless to the company, being attached to an effort to or pursuing its goals of positive results. Starting from the presupposition that what is the face or price of the market, an accounting of costs to barely rush costs and form sales prices is not a point of nenhum sense.
Secondly, there must be a radical move not two entrepreneurs in a way that 'leave two worlds, for which they are trained, and enter two worlds, in the intuition of positive results' ”
This publication serves as an approach to expand other areas of the company, including serving as new instruments for Management Accounting.
Or the principle that was based on TOC is that there is a common cause for so many effects, that the phenomena that we see are only the consequence of deeper causes, raising our vision of the company.
Every company is considered as a TOC system, it is a set of elements between you that have some relationship of interdependence. Corbett (1997; p 39) refers that "each element depends in one way or another, on the overall performance of the system two joint efforts depend on all its elements".
Or council chave da TOC, refer-a to restriction, ou seja, or fator that restricts the operation of the system as a whole. Goldratt, apud Corbett (1997; p.39) explains that: “o primeiro passo é reconhecer that every system was constituted for a purpose; We do not raise our organizations sem nenhuma finalidade. Assim, any action taken by any part of the company should be judged by its impact, not global purpose. Isso implies that, before we deal with the first steps in any part of the system, first we need to define what is the global goal of the same and the measures that will allow us to implement or impact any subsystem and any local goal without global goal. A system is nothing more than what we feel to be expressing our words:Anything that is impeccable in the system of attaining a higher performance in relation to its goal. that your hair is less restricted ”.
All systems fear that hair will be less restricted. That statement was explained by the fact that nothing was done that would limit or perform the system, it would be infinite, or if it were a company, it would not be possible to restrict it, its profit would be infinite.
As this reasoning, raised or continuous TOC assessment process (for physical restrictions), which led the efforts towards the goal of any system, giving origin to the TOC methodologies, including methodology for management accounting. This CIA sense (1996: p.32) says that it is only five steps to place a practical theory:
- Identification of the restriction (ões), ou seja, or (s) fator (s) that restricts (em) or system: definition of how to explore the restriction (ões) of the system: subordination of all aspects to decisions made above, elevation of (s) restriction (ões) do sistema; evolve for oo agora mais fraco, sem deixar that inertia turns to nova restriction ".
Goldratt apud Corbett (1997: p.42), states that “before starting with the first steps in any part of the system, we first need to define what is the overall goal of the same and the measures that will allow us to implement or impact any subsystem and of any local a nessa global goal ”.
For Goldratt & Cox (1986; p.43), the Theory of Restrictions can be framed within a business system vision, since the goals of a organization are reduced to the questão of obtaining financial results when they say that "the goal of a company de manufatura é ganhar dinheiro ”.
A company goal "is a return on shareholder capital", second Corbett (1997; p.43). Or the same author refers that in order to put yourself between the Liquid Profit and the Return on or Investigation of the Theory of Restrictions with three measures, where these are to be purely financial, to show the company is directed to its goal or its goal. Nessa linha de pensmento, all or process of business philosophy must be centered on recipes and not on costs. Thus, despite the costs, there are only resources to produce recipes and hooks.
As TOC measures, or seja, or accounting system is formed by three blocks of construction according to Goldartt (1992; p. 17) that:
"Ganho (G): either index hair qual or system gera dinheiro through das bandages.
Investimento (I): everything or money that or system invests in the purchase of items that it intends to sell.
Despesas Operacionais (DO): everything or money that or system spends transforming investment in Ganho ”.
Or ganho é defined according to Corbett (1997; p.43) “as everything or money that enters the company, less or that it pays to its suppliers; esse é or dinheiro que a gerou company; or money paid to suppliers and money generated by other companies ”.
Either the second or the same author (1997; p. 45) is all or money that the system invests in the purchase of goods that it intends to sell. Corbett (1997; p.45) added that the investment should be divided into two categories, two stocks of raw material, products in process and finished products and other assets. This is because the product stocks have a great impact on the competitiveness of the company.
Despite the fact that Goldratt (1992; p.16) is operational, he is understood as everything or that "we constantly have to put inside the machine to move his engrenagens", as, for example, salaries, from or president of the company attached to mão-de direct work, shelter, light, social orders, depreciation etc. A TOC does not classify you into fixed, various, indirect, direct, etc. At the operational level, it is simply all of our other accounts (expenses) that will not enter without gain or investment.
A TOC affirms according to Corbett (1997; p.46) that any thing can be classified with more than three measures, and that it is only enough to make you stand between o Liquid Profit (LL) and Return on or Investment (RSI) as As daily managers two managers, where we apply the formulas of LL and RSI:
LL = G-DO
RSI = (G-DO) / I
Wave: G = total ganho, å GTp
DO = total operational clearance
I = total investment
Corbett (1997, p.46), argues that with these three measures (G, I and DO) we get to know or the impact of a decision on the results of the company. It also adds that ideal is a decision that increases or G is diminutive I and DO. Therefore, any decision that positively impacts or RSI is a decision that leads us to the direction of the goal of the system. Or final judgment, which decides whether or not a decision is made, or RSI. He also said that we do not need to calculate or liquid profit for all company, nem or RSI. We can calculate either liquid profit or RSI increis; se or LL incremental for positive, e se o RSI incremental for positivo e maior or equal to o atual RSI da Empresa, então é uma boa decisão.
7 - Implicações na Contabilidade Gerencial
For Noreen (1996; p. XXXI) and impossível to separate the TOC operations from the TOC accounting. Any attempt to operate a TOC operation in conjunction with traditional management accounting controls and measurements is outdated or failed. It is the same way that, or JIT, TOC does not adapt to common practices of accounting management accounting, such as support by absorption and report of variance of custo padrão.
A major and only reason for this incompatibility is that as much or cost by absorption quanto or report of variação de custo padrão criam incentives to produce excess inventories. Sob or custeamento por absorção, or accumulation of inventories tends to reduce or custo. When the production exceeds the sales, the fixed costs are distributed in more units and part two costs are included but not as part of two additional inventories, as opposed to the demonstration of the result as part of the custody of goods sold. Not related to the variance of custo padrão, a work center with a força de trabalho fixa can only be measured according to its efficiency with a higher production. By definition, the non-restriction work centers can produce more pressure than the work centers with restriction.
Therefore, the first forem will be kept busy producing to generate reports of efficiency, please, or an unavoidable result or accumulation of inventories of material in process that cannot be transformed into bandages. No JIT is a central message that such inventories are only due to two main operational problems and tend to camouflage problems that should be addressed.
No place of custeamento by absorption, most of the TOC companies use a variation of custo variável in which it is assumed that you are the sole custodian or sole custoiáal. Noreen (1996; p. XXXII) refers to the OCD, or custo variável é preferível ao custeamento por absorção, por três razões:
- It does not create incentives to accumulate inventories, it is considered most useful in decisions; The next most important non-flux based profit council of Caixa.
It has been proven that you demonstrators are using the OCD principles only to understand that you are convinced, and the effects of your story about the reports you have more sense of the demonstrations of variavel custeamento.
Segundo Corbet (1997; p.159), "or objective of the managerial accounting and to provide information for a decision-making, fazer or the link between the two local managers and the profit of the company".
The data given to management accounting may be used to help control a production restriction. Based on the use of a resource with a restriction of capacity and a financial secrecy essential for two important decisions, according to Noreen (1996; p.XXXIII), use priority of the restriction and decide when or not to raise the restriction. The products with the lowest contribution margin by unit of the restriction must receive the lowest priority; They are only or less important use as restrictions. The same author also argues that, apart from that, the margin of contribution by a unit of restriction for or marginal work (this is, or custo of the opportunity to use a restriction) offers an interest in raising restrictions. It was or benefited from raising to restriction exceeding or custody, it must be acquired more than resource with restriction of capacity.
A TOC is a different way of controlling the operations and work with the systems you have conventional, which emphasizes the analysis of the absorption and variability of the two parent issues. A TOC requires major modifications to the financial systems you have and management. For Noreen (1996; p.XXXIV), not OCD world, there are only three ways to increase profits:
- “Increase of hooks (bandages) reduction of operating expenses (fixed costs); ouredução de investimentos - especially em inventário ”.
For Noreen (1996; p. XXXVII) to OCD with three important contributions. First of all from his point of view, Ferramentas gives frequently neglected management accounting, as well as various types of relevant ones, it seems to be even more important than I generally suppose.
Second, TOC offers a theory of coherent and focused management, with which administrators you can exercise your job. With TOC, the managerial information requirements are clear and less necessary for two administrators, you have to imagine or that other managers will want to or impose on the systems that you are not interested in.
Noreen (1996; p.XXXVII) says that “or third party, for those who teach us accounting at a managerial level, he is a cofrawer to find companies that we do not use day by day with many technical techniques that we defend, such as a variable and relevant company, so many times we seem to be opposed to common practice ”.
A TOC methodology for a management accounting foi, e adinda é, openly criticized by the great majority of people who are not the current paradigm of accounting for costs, as Corbett says (1997; p.160)
8- Considerations
The objective of the management accounting according to Corbett (1997; p. 53) "is to link the connection between the two managers and the profit of the company, so that they can find out which ones are their company in the direction of their goal "
A goal of the company (ganhar dinheiro) proposa no âmbito da teoria das restrictições advém de três measures: o ganho, o investimento ea desperation operational. Corbett (1997; p. 53) said that “in order to make a decision second to OCD, we need to quantify or impact the decision on three different measures and, therefore, we will be able to see what a variation is not liquid profit and no return on or investment (or that He will show us his decision and he will not) ”.
In order to quantify the impact of a decision on three basic measures or the role of the company restriction.
For Corbett (1997; p. 161), “Custody accounting is obsolete, but obsolescence does not just give way to the use of custody accounting, more like the Custody Accounting Council. A loss of relevance of the accounting of costs was not due because it taxed the costs of direct work, but also because it taxed the costs ”.
A TOC accounting must be a family territory to a managerial accounting. We use thermostats used in OCD as well as different types of data that we commonly use, various costs, use of scarce resources, and accounting for liability for topical issues that have led us to management accounting for decades. From a theoretical point of view, it was a good thing for OCD and a novidade for accountants.
9 - Bibliographic references
ALLORA, V. GANTZEL V. Revolução us custos: the ABC and UP methods and strategic management of custos as a tool for competitiveness. Salvador-, BA: Casa da Qualidade, 1996.
BERLINER, C. BRIMSON, James A. Management of Custos in advanced industries: CAM-I council base. São Paulo: TA Queiroz: Fundação Salim Farah Maluf, 1992.
CIA, JS Management accounting and theory of constraints: interlinking accounting to production. Revista Brasileira de Contabilidade, v.25, n. 102, year XXV, Nov-Dec / 1996.
COELHO, CUF Management Accounting: control and information system. Magazine Pensar Contábil do Conselho Regional de Contabilidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro. Rio de Janeiro - RJ. n.3, year II, mar / 1999.
CORBETT NETO, T. Accounting of ganhos: a nova accounting of management according to Teoria das restrictições. São Paulo: Nobel, 1997.
DRUCKER, PF Managing in times of large changes. São Paulo: Pioneira, 1995.
GOLDRATT, E. e COX, J. A meta - um process of continuous advancement São Paulo: Educatur Editores, 1992.
GOLDRATT, E. A syndrome do palheiro, garimpando information ocean of dice. São Paulo: Educatur Editores, 1992.
GUERREIRO, R. A goal of the company: its reach sem mysterios. São Paulo: Atlas, 1996.
GUERREIRO, R. The principles of the theory of restrictions on the ethics of economic measurement. Study Notebook of FIPECAFI. São Paulo, n.13, jan / jun 1996.
HORNGREN, CT Introdução à contabilidade managerial. Rio de Janeiro: Prentice-Hall do Brasil Ltda, 1985.
JOHNSON, HT KAPLAN, RS Managerial Accounting: a restoration of relevance to the accounting of companies. Rio de Janeiro: Campus, 1993.
KAPLAN, Robert S. Management accounting. São Paulo: Atlas, 2000.
KRAEMER, MEP Custos Management. Magazine Pensar Contábil do Conselho Regional de Contabilidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro. Rio de Janeiro - RJ. n.5, year II, Aug-out / 1999.
KRAEMER, MEP A need for operational change in management accounting. Linhares Faculties Magazine. Linhares-ES, n. 6, year III, out / 1999.
NOREEN, EW A theory of restrictions and its implications in managerial accounting: an independent report. São Paulo: Educator, 1996.
PADOVEZE, CL Management accounting: a focus on the accounting information system. São Paulo: Atlas, 1994.
PADOVEZE, CL O role of managerial accounting not business process of value creation. Study Notebook of FIPECAFI. São Paulo, n.21, May / August 1999.
PADOVEZE, CL Theory of Restrictions: Outreach Measures for the Company's Goal. Revista Brasileira de Contabilidade, v.28, n. 119, year XXVIII, set-out / 1999.
PRADA, MBV Management accounting and the new production environment. University of Zaragoza. Accounting and Finance for decision making. Accounting and Finance Department. Zaragoza, 1995.
SHANK, JK GOVINDARAJAN, S. Strategic management of custos: a nova ferramenta for a competitive vantagem. Rio de Janeiro: Campus, 1995.
