Lead contamination in a marginal urban area of callao in peru

Childhood lead exposure remains a public health problem; It is not a disease of poverty or ethnic minorities, nor is it the result of wrong parenting practices.

I.- GENERAL

LEAD:

Dense metallic element of bluish color whose symbol is Pb. It is one of the first metals known to man, there are references in the old testament that lead was used by the Romans in the contemporary era, it was used in the construction of tin alloy pipes and its atomic number is 82.

Lead properties:

Lead is a soft, malleable and ductile metal, if it is heated slowly it can be passed through annular or tracheal holes. It has low tensile strength and is a poor conductor of electricity.

Lead poisoning:

The lead poisoning is an environmental disease caused by human activities, the concept of lead poisoning has changed considerably in recent decades.

Lead ingested in any of its forms is highly toxic, its effects can be felt after accumulating in the body over a period of time. The symptoms of poisoning are: Anemia, weakness, constipation, and paralysis, lead can cause decreased intelligence, delayed motor development, memory impairment, and hearing and balance problems, in adults it can increase blood pressure.

Lead characteristic as a pollutant:

Unlike many organic pollutants that decompose on exposure to sunlight or heat, lead never breaks down, persists, and can be buried in the ground, or washed away from sediment, but never completely disappears and always remains a latent danger that may be mobilized again in the future.

Sources of lead contamination:

Lead occurs naturally in the earth's crust at an average of 16 mg / kg. It was one of the first metals mined by man. The main lead deposits worldwide are in Australia, Canada, the United States of America and the former Soviet Union. In Latin America the most important producers are Peru and Mexico.

Lead is also found in air, water and soils, the presence of lead in these is due to soil erosion and volcanic activity and they are washed by the effect of rainfall, transported to streams and subsequently they deposit with the sediments in rivers, lakes and oceans.

Lead is also present in various industrial activities either as a component of the raw material, as is the case of the battery, pigment industries or as part of by-products of the process such as printing and welding, also lead It is used in the pottery industry (glaze), anti-knock for gasoline, lead pipes, ammunition, paint pigments, radiation protection elements, among others.

Anthropogenic sources that contaminate the urban environment with lead are:

The combustion of gasoline vehicles that inject lead or its components into the air, which is distributed, transported and integrates all environmental components such as air, water or soil.

Lead contamination by food and water intake: Another element that distributes contamination is the distribution of drinking water as long as the connections are lead pipes, as occurs in the cities of Lima and Callao.

The outdoor storage of mineral particulate and the inadequate transport of this material contribute to spreading lead in the air, contaminating the environment of the place.

Absorption routes:

Theoretically, lead can enter the body through the intestine after inferring it, through the skin. The most frequent route among children is oral, with the consequent intestinal absorption. Children usually bring objects that contain or are covered by lead to their mouths; fine dust licked from dirty hands or toys can provide larger proportional amounts to be absorbed. Inorganic lead salts are generally unhealthy in aqueous solutions; the dissolution of lead-containing particles depends on their size, p H, and the presence of other food components.

The absorption of lead appears to occur, in part, through mechanisms developed for essential elements, especially calcium and possibly iron. These competitive pathways increase the absorption of lead when the dietary supply of minerals is inadequate.

Inhalation of lead dust probably from mineral deposits that are injected into the atmosphere through the air, in these situations lead is suspended in very fine particles, so lead easily penetrates the lung and can cause massive acute poisoning.

Transcutaneous lead absorption is poor when lead particles are deposited on the skin, but when inorganic lead compounds are applied to the skin if it penetrates the dermis, this pathway usually affects workers in industries that use compounds. or lead by-products.

Gastrointestinal and neurological symptoms of lead poisoning are: anorexia, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain and constipation, the recurrent combination of these symptoms should generate suspicions of lead poisoning. The permissible limit or threshold for the presence of lead for these symptoms to appear has been established at approximately 2.4 umol / l (50 ug / dl). However, it is established that 0.97 to 2.2 umol (20 - 45 ug / dl) can contribute to the presence of these symptoms.

II.- DESCRIPTION AND GENERAL ASPECTS OF CALLAO:

Location and limits:

The constitutional province of Callao is located on the central coast of the Peruvian coast, towards the western sector of the department of Lima; between the geographical coordinates of 11 ° 47 '50 ”and 12 ° 07' 30” of South Latitude, and 77 ° 4 '40 ”and 77 ° 11' 40” of West Longitude. Its limits are the following: North, the District of Santa Rosa, East with the District of Puente Piedra, San Martín de Porras and the Cercado de Lima; by the South with the Districts of San Miguel and by the West the Pacific Ocean.

Political demarcation:

On August 20, 1826 it was created as a district and, due to its importance as an international coastal port, on April 22, 1857, the national convention gives it the title of Constitutional Province of Callao and is made up of six districts:

Callao (fenced) Bellavista, La Perla La punta. Carmen de la Legua Window

Being the provincial capital the city of Callao.

Surface:

It has a continental surface of 158.12 Km2 (15, 812.84 Has.), Including the territory of the San Lorenzo Islands, El Frontón and the Hormigas de Afuera, Palomino and Roca Horadada Islets. Its territory is located at an altitude between zero and 534 meters above sea level (meters above sea level). Approximately 60% of its surface is flat below 40 meters above sea level and the rest is rugged, arid, hilly, with some typical hill environments.

The insular area is made up of a shallow deltaic sea and a group of islands and islets that together cover an approximate area of 450 km2 of influence. The emerged surface of the islands, which reaches 390.1 6 masl, covers an area of 17.63 km2.

In the attached table (Table Nº 1) we can see the importance of the districts of Ventanilla and El Callao in terms of territorial space, Ventanilla represents 51.24% of the provincial territory and El Callao 30.85%, the insular area represents 11.3% while the districts of Carmen de la Legua-Reynoso. Beautiful view. La Perla and La Punta only reach 6.76%. Regarding the geomorphological conformation of the San Lorenzo and El Frontón Islands, these are characterized by the presence of cliffs, being the undulating and monticulated relief, on San Lorenzo Island three elevations can be distinguished: Cerro la Mina, Cerro Encantada and the Huanay hill, All these elevations have a great variety of tourist vocations,that from a recovery point of view of the Punta and La Perla spas in the province would represent an excellent alternative for the recovery of the marine environment, its fauna and tourist activity.

III.- THE GROWTH OF THE METROPOLITAN POPULATION AND ITS RELATION TO CALLAO.

The situation in the province of Callao is directly related to the processes of a metropolitan nature, that is, the Lima-Callao territory, which concentrates more than a third of the country's total population. Historically, they have maintained relatively high population growth, with average growth rates. above the national level. These higher population growth rates are related to the high concentration of activities in the country in these territories.

Although it is true that in absolute terms, the population of Lima and Callao has grown impressively, it should also be noted that their pace has been progressively decreasing, which is observed in the annual average growth rates of the population in the inter census periods.

VI.- POVERTY IN CALLAO

In the Poverty Map of Peru prepared by FONCODES, it specifies that the highest degree of poverty in Callao is located in the Ventanilla district (See table No. 4), which reaches 32.5%, followed by El Callao with 21, 5%, then La Punta with 14.9%, Carmen de la Legua Reynoso with 12.7%, La Perla with 11.9% and Bellavista, which registered the lowest rate with 6.3% of the population in a qualified situation as poor.

The highest indicators of malnutrition are in Ventanilla with a rate of 15.66. The population with the least access to medical posts is in La Perla with 16,775 inhabitants per post, followed by Ventanilla with 13,448 inhabitants. The Ventanilla district, followed by El Callao, show the most deficient service coverage indicators, as 70% do not have a water supply, 74% are not connected to the sewage network and 43.70% do not have electricity.

V.- THE ENVIRONMENTAL SITUATION IN CALLAO:

Main problems and causes of deterioration.

URBAN CHARACTERIZATION OF CALLAO

to. Important elements that conditioned the Territorial occupation:

In the territory of the Callao province it has played an important role in the urban occupation process, the location of the port and the airport have been the most important elements on which this process has revolved.

Itself, its extension and territorial morphology have also conditioned the occupation process, the presence of the coastline and the occupation of the lower area (entrance to the coastline) of the Rímac and Chillón river basins have been important elements in its development..

Physically, each river has become a dividing line for large areas defined as Callao Sur from the Rímac river to the south; Callao Medio, the territory between the Rímac and Chillón rivers, and El Callao Norte, from the Chillón river to the provincial limits. Each one of them proposes different forms of interrelation with the province of Lima.

b. The occupation process

Callao's current spatial organization is better understood through the analysis of its occupation process.

Since the location of the port in the years of the Lima foundation and its subsequent evolution, it has played an important role; Callao's first urban center is formed around port activity. Along with the historical center of Lima, Barranco, Miraflores and the current historical center of Pueblo Libre, they were the most important urban centers of the metropolis.

Until 1940, El Callao meant the port, the nearby old center, some commercial activities on Sáenz Peña Avenue, and industrial activities such as the Cervecería Nacional. Puerto Nuevo already existed as a peripheral settlement near the port and La Perla as a spa.

Subsequently, the determination of the axis of Av. Argentina as the location area for industrial activities, consolidated the union of downtown Lima with the center of Callao, first defining a significant flow of relationship for its specialized activities, the financial center and the port and then the massive occupation of the intermediate areas, with large marginal areas also appearing as a product of the 1940 earthquake.

Until 1970, the center of Callao had been occupied, the districts of Bellavista, La Perla and Carmen de La Legua and Reynoso were in the process of consolidation, the airport was built and the territory was being occupied by its surroundings, as an extension from the San Martín de Porres district. In parallel, they designed and built the Satellite City of Ventanilla in 1960 and annexed it to Callao in 1969, executing some housing programs in the center of Lima whose surpluses were located in the sandbanks of the area today known as Centro Poblado Mi Perú.

Today the Callao Province shows great inter-district differences according to the economic and urban development achieved. Residential districts like La Punta; others consolidated and in process of decline, such as Bellavista, La Perla and part of Callao; districts in the process of consolidation such as Carmen de la Legua and districts in full urbanization such as Ventanilla and part of Callao.

c. The spatial structure

Callao, due to its form of birth and urban expansion, presents a central structure with strong imbalances with respect to the entire territory, with clear differences in levels of development, degrees of urbanization, levels of contamination, basic services and the consequent social effects such as access to education and health. Its spatial organization is structured through the main activities of the province that are of a metropolitan function, and that give it a differentiated character, these are the presence of the port, the airport, the La Pampilla refinery and being the main headquarters of the Navy of Peruvian war. This is reinforced through the structuring of its main articulation road axes, the main internal axis being Av. Néstor Gambeta, which connects Callao Norte,Central and South and the axes that link Callao with Lima, such as Av. Colonial, Av. Argentina, Av. Venezuela, Av. La Marina, Av. La Paz, and the train line and the Panamericana Norte highway.

The Callao Province then, has been developed based on its port activity, with a mode of occupation and growth that has been generating increasing environmental pollution, differentiated by area: The main center of Callao, dominated by the presence of commercial activities, financial, services and institutions is located in the so-called Callao Sur; it is the area that has the greatest articulation and dependency flows with Lima, and in turn is part of the network of metropolitan centers; Here is one of the most important industrial hubs in Lima and Callao. Argentina Avenue It is the area that is consolidated and in process of decline.

The average Callao is presented with special and subsidiary characteristics with respect to the first. The most important ones are due to the presence of the airport, the constant pressure caused by the occupation of agricultural areas. This pressure is not exerted from El Callao but from the San Martín de Porras district in the Northern Cone of Lima.

This area reaffirms the role of port and airport of the Northern Callao Province, it is also a subsidiary area but not of Callao but of metropolitan Lima; It has been consolidated as part of the expansion process in Lima. The identity as chalacos is weaker and even the commercial relations and main flows are made with districts like Puente Piedra. It is the area that has the lowest basic services index and the one with the highest dependency ratio.

Ventanilla is a district in the process of consolidation and constitutes an expansion area of the Callao province and one of the most important in North Lima, due to the existence of usable space although with pronounced topography, sandy soil and difficulty for public services.

VI.- STORAGE SITUATION OF MINERAL CONCENTRATES

CHARACTERIZATION:

Lima is one of the cities that is threatened by the high pollution generated by the production, commerce and housing systems. The heavy and light industry at the ends of the city of Lima and Callao has been surrounded by housing as a result of the occupation. informal and messy territory.

The mining exploitation of the central zone of the country requires the port of Callao to, through it, export its products by sea. The mineral concentrates reach the warehouses of the province in their greater quantity by means of trucks and, in a smaller quantity., by rail. The minerals are received, weighed and stored in the open air for an average of 20 to 45 days to be loaded, dispatched and transported to Pier N ° 5 of the Callao Maritime Terminal where they are deposited on a plate to be entered on the ships using front loaders and portable conveyor belts.

The companies that store mineral concentrates store copper, zinc, lead, and cadmium, and these have become a potential polluter for the entire surrounding population. Schools, markets, farmland are located around the stores, and food is sold hot, fruit, ice cream, soft drinks that are sold on an outpatient basis.

The winds play an active role in the transfer of mineral particles in wide areas of influence depending on the size of the particles and the speed of the wind, presenting quantifiable values in the particular case of lead, currently there is no cleaning system trucks effective at the end of their operation.

The location of the warehouses, the small size of the warehouses and the inaccessibility of the railway to most of them contribute daily to the congestion of the access roads to the warehouses as well as those leading to the port, damage to runways due to traffic heavy, the breakage of sidewalks and dust generation, Parking in front of the houses, has allowed the particulate material to reach the interior of the neighboring houses. This problem is exacerbated by mineral loading vehicles that spend the night in areas near the homes without having been cleaned.

Existing studies have reported that the presence of lead in blood in the populations surrounding the mineral concentrate warehouses has a specific origin of lead ore, and the values found are quite high.

VII.- PROBLEMS, CAUSES, AFFECTED POPULATION AND INVOLVED AGENTS

The contamination by particulate material of mineral presents particular characteristics in the Constitutional Province of Callao, due to the presence of warehouses of mineral concentrates. Data provided by the different companies report the handling of zinc, copper lead concentrates in thousands of tons per year. Studies carried out by representative institutions such as DIGESA, report the presence of lead, as a source of contamination without neglecting the presence of particulate material from the other elements, although these have not yet had a specific study.

The problems and their causes have been grouped into two aspects, one referring to the social cultural, and the other referring to the natural physical.

1. From the social-cultural point of view we have:

Contamination due to improper handling of particulate mineral material from warehouses adjacent to the port terminal. This problem, strongly evidenced in lead contamination, has the following causes:

to. The inadequate infrastructure of the concentrate tanks: storage is carried out outdoors, moving the particulate material to different areas and distances by simple action of the winds. Furthermore, the height of some of the perimeter walls does not exceed that of the neighboring houses, allowing exposure with the mineral particulate material. Although this situation has changed since 1999, there has been a long period of exposure of residents to contamination by particulate matter, poor condition, and inadequate cleaning processes for windbreak nets, it is necessary to establish that the presence of nets does not determine a total protection against particulate material, since it can pass through them by the force of the wind.The partial cleaning (only the tires) of the loading and unloading vehicles allows a transfer of mineral concentrate through the entry routes to the warehouses and the loading dock.

b. Inadequate handling in the storage operation: The characteristics of the open field storage process allow some deficiencies; Although it is true that the regulations established by the Provincial Municipality have been implemented, it is necessary for this problem to have a mitigation process, modifying the causes such as:

The inadequate height and angle of repose of the ruma, as well as the insufficiency or bad placement of the protective blankets that allow the displacement of the particulate material by the wind. The generation of dust due to excessive manipulation in the reception, storage in rumas, mixtures of concentrates from small batches, shipments and transport to port.

c. Inadequate handling in the shipping operation: carried out at the Dock of the Empresa Nacional de Puertos SA. (ENAPU), a procedure that begins with the reception of trucks from neighboring warehouses, taking as a first step the weighing of the load on platform scales located at the entrance to the dock. The cargo is then carried to the platform where it is deposited to enter the ships using front loaders and portable transporters in repetitive procedures.

There is an accelerated environmental control policy, which considers safety standards for machinery and vehicles for bulk cargo and containers, the adequate use of safety equipment and implements; on the unloading, shipment of chemical substances in bulk, also, protection measures against contamination by handling of bulk cargo, as well as the promulgation of emergency plans for port terminals.

In addition, the Office of Environmental Supervision has been formed to execute the 2001 Environmental Management Operational Plan, which involves studies, purchases of construction equipment and measurements. However, the activity of loading mineral concentrates continues to take place with some deficiencies, which are characteristic of the current shipping system. The generation of dust at the time of unloading on the platform and loading towards the conveyor belt constitutes the source of contamination of the surrounding marine environment, damaging the activity that takes place in the fishing terminal.

The problem is exacerbated by the large movement of concentrates. According to the report of the Monthly Movement of Minerals at the Callao Port Terminal, ENAPU, the lead concentrate represents 1 3% of the total shipment from the months of January to July 2001.

d. Long operating time of the warehouses: the contamination by particulate matter and the impacts on the urban environment are old. The Centromin Peru warehouse has been operating for 50 years, the one in Perubar 32 and the one in Selva Central is 20 years old.

Likewise, time becomes a factor that generates contamination because concentrates are kept in warehouses for between 25 and 60 days depending on the actions of sale and maintenance of the stock. This represents a permanent exposure of the inhabitants, affecting their health.

and. The presence of heavy transport destined to the transfer of materials from the mines to the warehouses and from these to the shipping area, becomes a problem due to:

The age of the units. The few access roads to warehouses and vehicle depots. with routes along Av. Gambeta, Av. Argentina, Av. Rímac, to the Port along Av. Atalaya, Contralmirante Mora and Av. Guadalupe. The average frequency of entry is between 25 to 30 trucks / day. The existence of mineral concentrate vehicle deposits that stay overnight in areas near the terminal. These deposits exist in the avenues Rímac, Otto Klefer Guillermo Ronald, Argentina, Miguel Capurro, Miguel Arispe.

F. Poor condition of access roads to warehouses and shipping areas. The transfer of concentrate is carried out with trucks with a capacity of 20 MT on tracks for light vehicular traffic, which has deteriorated the asphalt, exposing the base layer (earth), which generates a large amount of dust. There is also the problem of parking the trucks in housing areas, causing deterioration of the tracks in these areas as well as sidewalks when performing turning maneuvers.

g. Poor use of protective clothing and preventive actions. In many cases safety regulations are not respected when workers are exposed to direct contact with the mineral. Blood lead levels of 25 ug / dl have been reported in workers.

h. Inadequate living fence, whose function is to limit or serve as a natural windbreak, retention of particulate material, at present some warehouses present a green area with grass and ficus placed in a decorative way.

2. From the natural physical point of view we can identify the problem of Ignorance of meteorological characters.

Humidity, rain and winds are natural factors that must be taken into account in the management of the rumas, because an increase in humidity allows a filtration that would have an impact on the soil layers. The wind direction and its speed will allow to take safety measures to avoid the transfer of particulate material, which according to reports, have reached PTS of 320.6 ug / m3 with lead contents of 0.41 ug / m364 taking into account that the maximum allowable is 1.5 mg / m3.

GRAPHIC Nº 3

Source: DIGESA (Lead project 1998)

VIII.- RELATIONSHIP CAUSE EFFECT WITH NEARBY POPULATIONS.

Contamination of mineral concentrates in population and activities in the warehouse environment:

Among other causes it has.

POPULATION AFFECTED

It can be identified by the proximity it has to the warehouses, being called Populations in the Focal impact zone: Puerto Nuevo, Frigorífico, Chacaritas, Cuidadela Chalaca, San Juan Bosco, Santa Marina Norte, Fourth Sector. There are also human settlements that, although they are further away, are affected by being within the area of influence. A population of 80,000 people of different age groups is estimated.

GRAPHIC Nº 4 POPULATION AFFECTED

to. Presence of schools and market in industrial zone

The María Reiche Educational Center, located a few meters from the CENTROMIN warehouses on Av. Contralmirante Mora. Studies carried out by DIGESA in children exposed to mineral concentrate deposits in 1998-1999 have determined high levels of lead in their blood, in this case lead poisoning is a public health problem, since the levels were greater than 10 ug / dl, estimating a prevailing rate of 933 per thousand affected, which merits direct and immediate action by the competition sector for serious and irreversible damage.

The increase in lead levels found in the affected population of, shows a close relationship with the increase in the age of the individual, that is, in the time of exposure to the pollutant in the environment. The highest rate of accumulation and therefore increase in blood lead levels was observed in the first 24 months of age; Even in children younger than 6 months, lead levels were found above the maximum allowable levels.

Of the 152 children, of the primary educational level of the aforementioned school, 34 children have lead contamination in the blood, which is 23.44% of the total population. These 34 contaminated children have lower performance to the psychological test (TEA -1: School aptitude test - level 1) in relation to the 118 children who do not present contamination. The studies demonstrated the correlation between poor school performance and the average blood lead of schoolchildren.

Likewise, the presence of markets such as «El Obelisco» located a few meters from the Perubar warehouses, where the mineral particles are deposited on food products (meat, fish, chicken and vegetables) that is sold in this market, is considered inappropriate. With this, the population of the neighborhoods adjacent to the market are contaminated by ingesting these products.

DISTRIBUTION OF LEAD LEVELS IN THE BLOOD ug / dl BY GROUP OF AGES IN CHILDREN UNDER 72 MONTHS OLD FROM THE HUMAN SETTLEMENT OF PUERTO NUEVO DE LA CONSTITUTIONAL PROVINCE OF CALLAO JUNE TO SEPTEMBER 1998

b. Occupation of houses in incompatible zoning areas.

The proximity of the houses to the storage areas for mineral concentrate increases the chances of health loss, especially in the child population and postpartum women, according to studies carried out by DIGESA.

c. Little dissemination of health risks and hygiene standards to mitigate impacts, as well as little application of hygiene standards. DIGESA has proposed an implementation educational program parallel to the mitigation measures in order to reduce the level of lead exposure in children.

d. The presence of houses with precarious characteristics and incomplete construction: according to the evaluation carried out by DIGESA in 1999. The construction of the ceilings and walls made of materials such as wood, allows the accumulation of particulate material.

This material also accumulates in water reservoirs, windows and roofs of homes, on the other hand, the lack of access to basic services such as drinking water, the use of metal or concrete reservoirs, the lack of tightness with the covers and the Exposure to the environment increases the risk of water contamination by particulate mineral material.

The unpaved tracks as well as the passage of the heavy transport, and the loss of humidity of the load, have allowed the dispersion of particulate material, soil and mineral, by mechanical action towards the neighboring houses. In the area, a fine dust deposit is observed in windows and ceilings of the neighboring houses, mainly on the usual route of transit to the Warehouses and vehicle deposits on their way to the dock.

Photograph of the houses adjacent to the lead deposits in the Puerto Nuevo area

and. Agents involved

The people involved in solving these problems are:

The General Directorate of Environmental Affairs (DGAA) and the Directorate of Inspection of the Ministry of Energy and Mines (MEM). The National Society of Mining and Petroleum (SNMPE). The General Directorate of Environmental Health (DIGESA) and the General Directorate of Environmental Health del Callao (DISA I Callao). The Directorate of Education of Callao. Provincial Municipality of Callao. The Company of Ports SA (ENAPU). The Concertation Table for lead. National Council of the Environment. Regional Transitory Council of Callao.

ACTIONS, STUDIES AND PROJECTS IMPLEMENTED IN THE STUDY AREA.

Coordination actions are being carried out between entities that participate in the Lead Coordination table, these being the Ministry of Energy and Mines, DIGESA, ECO-Health Project, Callao Education Directorate, Callao Municipality, ENAPU, the NGO-BISA, ILMC, CTAR Callao, Deposits of Concentrates of Minerals of Callao and CONAM.

The companies have carried out security actions to minimize the environmental contamination generated by the process of loading, unloading, and transporting the mineral concentrates, placing meshes on the walls, moistening the coverings, and covering them. Likewise, tire washing and tank cleaning actions have been carried out with motorized sweepers and vacuum cleaners. The CENTROMIN deposit due to its proximity to the CE. María Reiche has carried out works such as changing windows, placing mesh, expanding the asphalt in the schoolyard, etc. However, all this is still not enough. DIGESA carried out two 68 monitoring of blood lead levels in CE children. María Reiche and in the areas surrounding the mineral concentrate deposits (Barrio Frigorífico, Chacarita and Ciudadela Chalaca in 1999),and during the current year in the surrounding areas. Population education program proposed by DIGESA in order to change some habits of the population to contribute to the decrease in blood lead levels, mainly of children. SNMPE (national society mining and petroleum), has formed a special inspection committee that visits all deposits to detect faults. Plans for the adaptation and environmental management of each of the deposits presented by the Ministry of Energy and Mines. Laboratory capacity and certification integrated by DIGESA and the DGAA-MEM. The Emission Control Committee is formed, made up of the DGAA-MEM,Municipality of Callao and DIGESA and the Cleaning and Communication Committee to determine the actions aimed at improving the streets made up of the Municipality of Callao, DIGESA and DGAA-MEM. The Provincial Municipality of Callao has formed the Monitoring and Surveillance Committee to carry out the monitoring the progress of the work carried out by the deposits. This committee is made up of DGAA - MEM, DIGESA - MINSA, three deposits of mineral concentrates and ENAPU. On the other hand, it has issued devices related to the storage, handling and transportation of lead mineral concentrates in Callao (September 3, 200 I). of minerals.CTAR Callao has started water and sewage works in Puerto Nuevo that have not yet been completed. The Ministry of Transport, Communications, Housing and Construction is working on a rearrangement of vehicular traffic for trucks that transport mineral concentrates. ENAPU has considered its 2001 Environmental Management Operational Plan fulfills scheduled tasks in order to improve current environmental conditions and reduce the risks of port deterioration and contamination during port operations and correct the effects that are taking place in its environment of influence. The Operational plan contains the following main points:Housing and Construction is working on a rearrangement of vehicular traffic for trucks transporting mineral concentrates. ENAPU has considered in its Environmental Management Operational Plan 2001 compliance with scheduled tasks in order to improve current environmental conditions and reduce risks deterioration and port contamination during port operations and correct the effects that are occurring in its environment of influence. The Operational plan contains the following main points:Housing and Construction is working on a rearrangement of vehicular traffic for trucks transporting mineral concentrates. ENAPU has considered in its Environmental Management Operational Plan 2001 compliance with scheduled tasks in order to improve current environmental conditions and reduce risks deterioration and port contamination during port operations and correct the effects that are occurring in its environment of influence. The Operational plan contains the following main points:ENAPU has considered in its 2001 Environmental Management Operational Plan the fulfillment of scheduled tasks in order to improve current environmental conditions and reduce the risks of port deterioration and pollution during port operations and correct the effects that are occurring in its environment of influence. The Operational plan contains the following main points:ENAPU has considered in its 2001 Environmental Management Operational Plan the fulfillment of scheduled tasks in order to improve current environmental conditions and reduce the risks of port deterioration and pollution during port operations and correct the effects that are occurring in its environment of influence. The Operational plan contains the following main points:

Training of personnel. Improvement of the solid waste collection system (appropriate facilities to receive garbage from ships). Build a tire washing tray for trucks that discharge mineral concentrates and purchase a sweeping / vacuuming machine for the mineral dock. Monitoring programs for seawater variables; drinking water, air quality, marine sediments and soil.

ECO CALLAO project. The project, led by CENTROMIN, considers the construction of a 60,000 m2 roofed warehouse 60 m high. It will consist of area «A» for concentrates of zinc, copper, coal and other minerals with the capacity to store up to 300,000 TM and area «8» where under negative pressure and in guaranteed conditions of extreme environmental security, up to 60,000 TM of lead will be stored, cadmium or other polluting materials.

According to the project's conception, minerals can be received and unloaded 24 hours a day in a clean and efficient way. The mixing of concentrates, necessary for small-scale mining, will be carried out inside the warehouse in safe conditions using various mobile feeders, and an underground belt with the capacity to transport up to 1000 MT / hour will pass through the 700m warehouse. At the exit of the warehouse it will continue through a tunnel that will run along Contralmirante Mora Avenue and then continue by air for 900 meters. through the Ferrovias link area to berth 5F of the Callao Maritime Terminal.

The area of this route will be hermetically closed with automatic aspiration, security, communications, automatic weighing systems and computers for the issuance of official shipping documents.

IX.- ANALOGY OR COMPARISON WITH SIMILAR CASES

In 1993, Chile and Bolivia: committed to building warehouses for the collection of lead on the outskirts of Antofagasta, after discovering the existence of children in that city with high levels of lead in their blood. The Environmental Commission of the Medical College of Bolivia had a great participation in this, however, they received responses such as this one: “In Chile, lead contamination occurs essentially in the workplace, and there are no studies referred to to the evaluation of the impact of this mineral on children's health ».

United States: Despite its strict laws and regulations in defense of ecology, lead contamination remains the number one threat to the country's environmental health, as one in 11 children between the ages of 1 and 5 have lead blood, especially children in the most populated areas, such as the states of New York and New Yérsey. The same threat is seen in Colombia, a country that, like Peru, has not banished the contamination that invades its cities from gasoline lead and toxic and tailings emanations in industrial and mining areas.

Meanwhile, in Venezuela: Things are no better: the economic areas with the highest incidence of pollutants are the basic metal industry (33.5%), construction (18.6%) and manufacturing with 17%. Caracas and Valencia are the most polluted cities in the country. Here, the most widespread occupational diseases are hearing loss or deafness (37.50%), dermatosis, produced by cements, detergents and solvents (32.34%) and lead poisoning.(16.13%). In France, child lead poisoning remains a serious health problem. In 1992, a study was carried out in 20 departments, where it was found that of the 14,216 children examined, 13,400 had initial plumbosis, of which 4,000 (32%) had a blood lead index greater than 100 ug / l (threshold from which a medical and sanitary intervention is necessary) and 700 children (5%) presented 250 ug / l.

Japan: It is perhaps one of the most polluted countries in the world, but it is also one of the forerunners in the implementation of large-scale environmental programs. In 1973, the Metropolitan Government of the city of Tokyo designed a plan to protect citizens against environmental risks, with the aim of achieving and maintaining the ideal conditions for environmental quality.

European Countries: Incredible as it may seem, in some European countries (Spain, France, Italy, United Kingdom, etc.), despite the fact that there are rigorous laws against lead contamination, it often happens that these are systematically violated by numerous industries (it is the same as saying: "made the law, made the trap"), while the population complains of various diseases caused by the emanations of industries that use lead as raw material. Another serious problem is the transfer and accumulation of mineral from the mining areas to the deposits located in Puerto del Callao for shipment at the large docks. This situation has caused a true ecological and public health disaster, as these tanks, as has been pointed out, are raised outdoors without the least protection. Also,The operation of transporting the mineral to Callao is carried out by trucks with the hopper unprotected or on the Central Railroad, whose open-top wagons are often scattered with the mineral as it passes through populated areas settled along the railway line.

X.- BLOOD LEAD PLUMBOSIS SATURNISM

Outside of Lima it also seems to rain lead… on lead. In May 1997, the Pan American Health Organization, PAHO, published a study that revealed the existence of blood lead in the inhabitants of four Peruvian cities. Between 1994 and 1995, PAHO researchers Augusto Ramírez, Juan Paucar Cam, and José M. Medina studied blood samples from 180 men and 180 women without occupational exposure to lead and from Lima, Huancayo, La Oroya, and Yauli.

The atomic absorption method was used to measure blood lead, with the help of a Perkin Elmer 603 spectrophotometer without a graphite furnace. Thus, blood lead concentrations were found in 269 cases, which had 63 micrograms per liter, in Lima; 224 cases, with 47 micrograms per liter, in Huancayo; 348 cases, with 40 micrograms per liter, in La Oroya; and another 140 cases, with 40 micrograms per liter, in Yaupi. The conclusion was that the concentrations of blood lead in the inhabitants of these cities were related to the degree of industrialization and the demographic density of each locality.

HIGHLY CONTAMINATED AIRS:

One of the factors that contribute most to Lima's environmental pollution is the weather. José Silva Cotrina, director of the Environment of SENAMHI (National Service of Meteorology and Hydrography), recently pointed out that the level of solid, sedimented pollutants, those that fall in the form of dust, reaches 35 tonnes in the northern and eastern sectors of the capital. per square kilometer and month, "when the maximum recommended limit recommended by the WHO is only 5 tons", that is, seven times more than allowed.

According to Silva, other Latin American cities with a similar problem, such as Mexico City, Santiago de Chile and Sao Paulo, have an established system of air quality standards that allow for their control and mitigation. Lima does not have it.

Being located on the coast, sea breezes enter and "carry all the pollution that is generated in Lima towards the northern and eastern cones of the capital, which are the most contaminated areas," he said. Precisely, the level of contamination registered in these sectors is closely related to the solid contaminants in suspension that "are the most dangerous", given that due to their size and light weight they do not settle, remain in the air and become inhalable.

To solve this dramatic situation, the expert recommended the elimination of the refineries and smelters located within the urban area, as happened in Mexico City, where they were closed. He also urged improving the obsolete Lima fleet and the quality of the fuels of the 700,000 units that circulate through our streets, since 65 to 90 percent of the lead incorporated into the body comes from the combustion of gasoline.

Lead poisoning: a slow and epidemic death

Its name comes from the "color of Saturn", gray. In some cases, excessive accumulation of lead in the blood has such an effect on the skin dye of those who are affected by this disease, also called "plumbosis" or "black tongue", a cruel disease that is now wreaking havoc on all Latin America.

Be careful with the kids!

The smallest are its main victims. Research has shown that the bones and soft tissues of children (brain, kidneys and liver), still in the process of development, absorb 50% of lead, while the absorption rate in adults is 20%. In environments like Lima, the threat of ingestion or inhalation of this toxic soft metal is latent.

Symptoms that occur as a result of lead poisoning include acute headaches, nausea, hyperirritability, loss of appetite, and general weakness. In addition to causing anemia, kidney damage and damage to the central nervous system, lead poisoning also reduces the physical and intellectual performance of the patient.

In children, brain damage can be more severe because lead affects learning. Also, as it slowly accumulates in the bones, the metal can impede the normal growth of the bones, sometimes generating hypertrophy or dwarfism. At very high levels it can cause epileptic seizures, coma and even death.

On the other hand, studies carried out by Dr. Ramón Cendejas Ramírez, from the Faculty of Higher Studies in Cuatitlán, Mexico, have shown that high concentrations of lead could also cause alterations in the pregnant woman's body and be inherited by her children, who would be born with acephaly.

HOW TO FIGHT SATURNISM?

Once the existence of lead in the blood is detected, it can be solved with hygienic and dietary measures that reduce any possibility of lead consumption, and thus counteract the existing lead in the bloodstream, especially with foods rich in iron and calcium. In severe cases it can be treated with chelators, compounds that bind to metal ions forming stable complexes, which are excreted from the body by urine.

SCIENTIST FROM PITTSBURG UNIVERSITY WARNS THAT LEAD CAN CREATE CRIMINALS

Here we present an article from the University of Pittsburg, where it is WARNED… that blood lead contamination that attacks the nervous system generates people with mental disorders and violence rates. This problem associated with those already known in Callao generates the emergence of people with a high level of crime.

When a child or adolescent grows up in the midst of high levels of lead contamination, gas stations, or others, necessarily have an impact on a behavioral disorder that is difficult to control, because at school age they turn out to be HYPERACTIVE and whose repercussions cause a high level of crime and many other problems..

In the framework of the Joint Conference of the American Academy of Pediatrics, which took place in May 2001, the researcher from the University of Pittsburg, USA, Herbert Needleman, presented a study based on a group of 417 North Americans, which would demonstrate the influence of lead on antisocial behaviors of children and adults.

According to this research, a child who lives near freeways or busy streets is exposed to chronic breathing of large amounts of lead, if the gasoline used in vehicles contains this metal. In addition, a minor who starts to scratch the paint in their bedroom, if it contains lead, may be intoxicating themselves without realizing it.

A boy who eats from a dented tin can may be incorporating a slow-acting but deadly poison into his body: lead.

But apart from all these situations, which are a source of contamination and damage to health, another danger now seems to be added to those who are voluntarily or involuntarily exposed to lead, especially the smallest: this metal would also have a lot to do with developing an aggressive and anxious personality, which can later lead to criminal delinquency.

Needleman compared lead levels in youth with no history and in minors who had been convicted by a judge. Among males, convicts were found to be almost twice as likely to have high levels of lead in their bones, and 11 to 37% of these cases were associated with early exposure to this metal.

According to the researcher, exposure to lead may be one of the easiest causes of criminal conduct to prevent.

Avalanche of evidence

"These results confirm the previous study by Needleman, which demonstrated an association between adolescent criminal behavior and bone lead levels, which in turn reflects the history of exposures to this product in the first years of life," says Andrei N Tchernitchin, director of the Environmental Pathology laboratory of the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, in Santiago de Chile. Eight years ago, Dr. Tchernitchin and his colleagues proposed an effect of lead, unknown at the time: the greatest tendency to drugs of abuse and stimulants, which has been progressively demonstrated through studies such as the one developed by Needleman. "Lead causes hyperactive behavior in young children, which will develop an aggressive personality, which has a tendency to promote antisocial actions",Tchernitchin pointed out.

IN PERU, THIS EVIL IS ONLY A «WORK DISEASE

Despite the fact that lead poisoning exists and takes its toll, few seem to be aware of it, since, to our knowledge, at least in Peru, the health authorities give it little importance. Still, the evil is there and has been denounced by numerous environmental organizations, which are practically the only ones that are concerned about the problem. According to the researcher Carolina Isabel Guerra Cáceres in her remarkable work "Lead… Imminent Danger", in Peru, a large mining country that ranks sixth in the world production of lead, the history of lead poisoning generally refers to the occupational field, especially the miner. Here there is, at the level of the Ministry of Health, an entity in charge of the study, regulation and control of occupational diseases:the Institute of Occupational Health of Peru of the Ministry of Health.

But the problem is not only occupational… the population not related to mining or heavy industry also suffers it in their own flesh because of lead and other toxic substances that thin the environment, and this is precisely what does not seem to enter the head from the authorities.

Recently, a community in a mining province filed a complaint in court against the Southern Corporation Company, one of the largest lead exploiters in the country, due to the serious effects of contamination among the inhabitants of the areas near the mining settlements. from the province of Ilo, in the department of Moquegua, about 1000 kilometers south of Lima.

For this reason, Carolina Isabel Guerra has been trying to demonstrate that the population most vulnerable to contamination is not necessarily the occupational one, «but rather the urban civilian population; and especially the children of these populations, where ignorance about the evil, its sources, symptoms and care, as well as the precariousness of the health conditions are the worst enemies, "explains the author.

And one of the arguments put forward for not taking into account this serious problem in the population field is the fact that Lima and Callao are not considered mining areas, despite having them in the vicinity and having foundries and refineries in the middle of the area. urban.

However, this is a city that concentrates the highest pollution rates, since, as Carolina Isabel Guerra says, “centralism and a weak system of regulation and control in terms of permissible limits of polluting emissions, as well as the lack of a system of efficient information that allows this control to be exercised in all sectors ", has made the people of Lima and those not so from Lima (that this is a city of immigrants from here and beyond) practically" swimming "in stale air, saturated with lead and other toxic substances.

Industrial toxic fumes are one of the major sources of pollution. These include factories that use lead as an input, scrap recyclers that operate with the eyes and patience of the authorities and whose plants are located in the heart of the urban area, including near schools and hospitals. Another source is the thousands of cars, trucks, minibuses, etc.

In our country, the history of lead pollution, plumbosis or lead poisoning has always been linked to mining and industry, making this disease exclusively occupational, that is, it only affects those who work in activities related to minerals such as lead.

SATELLITE IMAGE STUDY AREA: In the satellite images, the study area appears dark due to the presence of lead.

However, there is no doubt that this health problem is also affecting the population, which does not necessarily live from mining or industrial activity, but suffers from pollution caused by mines, refineries, smelters, recyclers, mineral deposits, etc. Despite the evidence, the studies carried out and the increasing number of clinical cases, especially in the child population, this situation has not yet been correctly addressed by both the public and private sectors.

Although some progress has been made in occupational health in Peru (in 1947 the prevention of occupational diseases law was created, creating the Department of Industrial Hygiene, now the Institute of Occupational Health of the Ministry of Health) and organizations such as DIGESA have been created, the situation has been aggravated by the lack of urban planning and migrations from the provinces, a socioeconomic phenomenon that dates back to the 1960s - call it poverty, hunger, misery, unemployment, lack of opportunities - and led to thousands of Peruvians to emigrate to the capital in search of better living conditions. The city then began to grow horizontally in a disorderly way - originating the so-called "slums",nothing to envy the favelas of Rio de Janeiro or the Caracas "ranchos" - making the industrial areas, located on the outskirts, suddenly be surrounded by urban areas or human settlements. It could be said that urban areas invaded industrial areas.

Likewise, the recession of the 1990s caused the collapse of many companies throughout the country, and especially in Lima, a city that encompasses 60% of national economic activity. Unemployment and underemployment have resulted in informality and lack of control in companies, as the crisis has caused thousands of workers to set up workshops in their own homes, that is, in this case, industries invade urban areas.

"The ignorance of the Peruvian population about the seriousness of the issue," writes Carolina Isabel Guerra, "and the situation of extreme poverty (characteristic of the most affected places), as well as the inertia of the central and local government entities, to confront the problem with the urgency that requires it, potentiates the effects of this disease because on the one hand there is no adequate awareness that makes the population protect themselves and demands compliance with environmental regulations and on the other, with environmental protection legislation, this does not it is enforced with the necessary severity to protect the vulnerable population. »

Another obvious danger dating back many years.

Gas stations (taps) in front of hospitals and schools -even if they have the "due security measures" -, old vehicles that emit more smoke than the Sierra train and an unbreathable air, are the corollary of one of the most polluted capitals in Latin America.

In 2001 there was an average of 1,820 gas stations in the city of Lima alone.

Only in the central Abancay avenue there are at certain times more lead particles per cubic meter of air than in the entire city of Santiago de Chile.

In 1998, lead was detected in the blood of several children at the Jesús Obrero de Comas school, north of Lima. "The highest record we found in this campus was 27.9 mg / dl and students with serum lead followed with levels between 10.0 and 15.7 mg / dl, that is, they all present toxic levels," he warned. on that occasion, Dr. Resalía Anaya, director of CICOTOX (UNMSA).

Peru ranks sixth in the world production of Lead. According to figures from the Peruvian Institute of Mining Engineers, lead production in our country rose from 229,722 metric tons in 1990 to 271,782 MT in 1999 (270,576 in 2000).

In Pisco, a port south of Lima, there was the case of a five-year-old girl whose hair analysis yielded 110 mg / dl. of lead. Interestingly, her father, a worker in a factory that produces lead oxide and copper oxychloride, gave hair analysis 140 mg / dl. In Oroya, lead has been detected in the blood of pregnant mothers at an average of 39.49 mg / dl.

At the beginning of 2004, lead will be eradicated from 84 and 95 octane gasoline in Peru. All Latin American countries have already done so, except Panama and Venezuela, which will only do so in 2002 and 2007, respectively.

XX. CONCLUSIONS

Childhood lead exposure remains a public health problem; It is not a disease of poverty or ethnic minorities, nor is it the result of wrong parenting practices. The “lead problem” has been reduced, but has not been resolved, and despite laws that prohibit lead in gasoline and paint, exposure risks remain. The problem has not been fully understood, such that an easy solution is impossible. The joint effort of public health institutions, environmental protection, housing, and pediatricians will be expensive, but it is the only way to eradicate this preventable disease. Until lead poisoning is eliminated, screening programs previously focus on the need for more acceptable screening methods,as well as more radical monitoring and sanitation programs.

It is necessary to propose an immediate and urgent solution in order to protect the population of Callao from the contamination produced by mineral concentrates. There are works on the dissemination of total particulate material as well as lead particulate material at significant levels. From the studies carried out by DIGESA in 1998-1999, the presence of contamination by lead particulate material from mineral concentrate warehouses is verified. The presence of high levels of lead in blood in children and postpartum mothers residing in the AAHH adjacent to the warehouses indicate the serious impact on health produced in the type of reception operation, loading, unloading and dispatch of the concentrated mineral. The Mayor's Decrees issued by the Municipality of Callao have mitigated the problem,A demanding compliance with the standard must be carried out for it to be effective. It is necessary to control the management actions in the storage operation to avoid insufficiencies and inadequate operations that put the population at risk of lead contamination. There is a high generation of powders of concentrates at the time of shipment, the humidity and wind levels must be controlled in order to ensure a low dissemination of particulate material from mineral concentrate.The heavy transport of this activity is a propagator of contamination at the time of passage of the truck through housing areas to warehouses and boarding area.The poor condition of tracks and sidewalks has a direct relationship with the presence of vehicle deposits that are close to the warehouses and in which they spend the night.There is little knowledge of health risks and hygiene standards to mitigate the impacts. It is necessary to increase the level of awareness and control that the worker must have inside and outside the company to avoid second-degree contamination. Zoning should not allow the presence of markets and schools adjacent to mineral concentrate warehouses. Likewise, taking into account the adequate use of plant species to perform protection, windbreaking and retention functions of particulate matter. The activity of outdoor storage carried out as it is managed today, requires knowledge of meteorological aspects that ensure the decrease of the transfers by the winds of the particulate material.The presence of houses of precarious condition increases the degree of exposure to pollutants from mineral concentrate warehouses. The storage of water in non-hermetic reservoirs outside the home constitutes a risk of lead contamination. The actions undertaken by institutions, companies and the population are tackling the problem in a multiparty manner, with which it is hoped to reach concerted solutions. The ECO CALLAO project offers a comprehensive solution and improvement of international quality and efficiency standards. It will start its operations in an estimated time of 12 months from the moment that all the permits, licenses and approvals that are required for its execution are obtained.The storage of water in non-hermetic reservoirs outside the home constitutes a risk of lead contamination. The actions undertaken by institutions, companies and the population are tackling the problem in a multiparty manner, with which it is hoped to reach concerted solutions. The ECO CALLAO project offers a comprehensive solution and improvement of international quality and efficiency standards. It will start its operations in an estimated time of 12 months from the moment that all the permits, licenses and approvals that are required for its execution are obtained.The storage of water in non-hermetic reservoirs outside the home constitutes a risk of lead contamination. The actions undertaken by institutions, companies and the population are tackling the problem in a multiparty manner, with which it is hoped to reach concerted solutions. The ECO CALLAO project offers a comprehensive solution and improvement of international quality and efficiency standards. It will start its operations in an estimated time of 12 months from the moment that all the permits, licenses and approvals that are required for its execution are obtained.The ECO CALLAO project offers a comprehensive solution and improvement of international quality and efficiency standards. It will start its operations in an estimated time of 12 months from the moment that all the permits, licenses and approvals that are required for its execution are obtained.The ECO CALLAO project offers a comprehensive solution and improvement of international quality and efficiency standards. It will start its operations in an estimated time of 12 months from the moment that all the permits, licenses and approvals that are required for its execution are obtained.

XXI. RECOMMENDATIONS TO THE GOVERNMENT

Follow-up through public health and housing agencies. The lead tests carried out on children are useless when there are no environmental public health programs, as well as the monitoring of each case. The government must establish and finance these types of programs. Lead screening programs in high-risk areas should be integrated with other public health activities. Environmental sanitation. The CAR-Callao Regional Environmental Commission is in favor of the measures and actions that environmental and housing protection agencies carry out to eliminate lead both from residential areas and from other areas where children are at risk of exposure.. It is necessary to have inspectors and workers with the necessary training and certification,As well as approved training programs, in order not to create more risks, some states have lists of experts and certified contractors. On the other hand, it is necessary to develop economical and safe technologies to eliminate lead, in such a way that basic prevention actions are convenient from the cost-effectiveness point of view. Reduction of new sources of lead contamination in the environment. The CAR is in favor of all legislation that seeks to reduce the entry of lead into the general environment. Identification of areas with risks of lead contamination. More information is required about the percentages of elevated blood lead levels in specific communities.The CAR encourages the government to conduct targeted research in small areas to determine if lead screening is necessary, as well as to find out whether actions to eradicate lead have been successful. A better understanding of the distribution of lead poisoning would allow for successful screening actions. Research to develop more effective lead tests. There is an urgent need for more effective and less invasive lead levels and poisoning tests. The ideal test could be routinely applied in outpatients, be inexpensive, fast, sensitive, contamination resistant, and reliable.Lead poisoning should be a condition reported to the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in Atlanta. The CAR is in favor of the laboratories, at the national level, reporting lead poisonings. Promotion of clinical studies. The CAR recommends that further research be carried out to determine the degree of effectiveness of various strategies to prevent and treat lead poisoning, as well as housing, and to carry out controlled clinical tests with chelating agents, with long-term follow-up. periodic recommendations regarding screening. CDC needs to conduct research on the efficacy of lead detection and be aware of the literature on it.in order to ensure that the screening is carried out in a way that guarantees greater protection from the point of view of public health and that, in addition, it is evasive and the best from a cost-effectiveness point of view. In particular, it is necessary to study and evaluate the issues related to risk, as well as the recommendations on the frequency of follow-up. Recommendations for screening should be re-evaluated primarily in light of the research that has been published since the 1919 guidelines. Adequate funding of screening tests. The Department of Health and Human Services should reconsider its decision to continue to use the outdated red cell protoporphyrin test in health-insurance children and to cover the cost of blood lead testing instead.The Early and Periodic Protection, Diagnosis, and Treatment Program must include blood lead testing as a separately billed item, nationwide.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. GRAY YOU MUST NOT TAKE. CARLOS GAMERO ESPARZA.

2. PHOTOGRAPHIC EXHIBITION. DAILY EYE 06-15-2001.

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3. AMERICAN ACADEMY OF PEDIATRICS. USES. 1998

4. PITTSBURG USA UNIVERSITY. 1998

(Herbert NeedLeman)

5. DIGESA. Study of blood lead in a selected population of Lima and Callao (1998-1999) and its expansion in three selected areas of Callao.

6. DESCO. Slum in metropolitan Lima. 1979.

7. ENAPU / GG. Administrative Directive No. 014-99 (24 MAR99) Mitigation of contamination in the loading / unloading of mineral concentrate.

8. DIRECTORATE OF HEALTH I-CALLAO Analysis of the health situation in the Constitutional Province of Callao -2000., Ministry of Health, June 2001. Lima Peru.

9. CONAM Environmental situation of the Constitutional Province of Callao. Participatory diagnosis. 1999.

10. CEGMA - (CENTER FOR GEOGRAPHICAL STUDIES AND ENVIRONMENT).

11. DIGESA Study of blood lead in a selected population of lima and callao (1998 - 99) and its expansion in three selected areas of callao.

12. CORDELICA - STRATEGIC PLAN FOR DEVELOPMENT OF LIMA - CALLAO. August 1997, Callao, Lima Peru.

13. ENAPU SA Environmental management operational plan. Restructured 2001. (03 August 2001).

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15. PUBLIC HEALTH OF MEXICO (MAY - JUNE - 1995 - VOL. 37 N ° 3).

ANNEXED

SOURCE: DIGESA Study to determine the Sources of lead exposure in the Constitutional Province of Callao June 2002.

Map 2. Average levels of lead in soil (ug / g) according to the sampling site in Callao in the area near the Minerals deposit; Peru 1999.

SOURCE: DIGESA Study to determine the Sources of lead exposure in the Constitutional Province of Callao June 2002.

Map 3. Average blood lead levels (ug / dl) in children population according to the location of the home in Callao in the area near the Minerals deposit; Peru 1999.