The management information system

Presentation

In the development of this work we will mention the importance of information in the organizational system, it is the objective of the group to present the topic from a comprehensive perspective, without falling too far into the tedious specifications that, more than clarifying, could confuse the understanding of the topic. For this reason, the first chapter mentions considerations that, according to the group's opinion, are necessary to establish in order to understand the systemic vision of the organization from the two sciences that study the effectiveness of the organization, such as psychology and sociology.

The second chapter deals more fully with the central theme of this work, it is a structuring of principles and concepts that sustain management information systems. It is necessary to clarify that, when using the term management, what is sought is to designate the responsibility of the person in charge, who makes important and strategic decisions for the development of production processes in the organization.

The third and last chapter is an effort to explain the different stages and actions that are taken for the development and implementation of a management information system, synthetically. We therefore hope that the development of this work collaborates with the understanding of the importance of management information systems within the organization.

Jorge Zanabria Sotomayor

Chapter I

The Organizational System

Since the appearance of the General Systems Theory (TGS); Its use and applications for the analysis and structuring of organizations have been increasing, its wide applicability as well as its main characteristics regarding the parts in process in a coherent whole have made this theory a true phenomenon in the social sciences since the emergence of the term, authored by the German biologist Ludwing Von Bertalanffy. In this first part we will mention the influence that TGS has had for the behavioral sciences and its implication in the study of organizations.

1.1 The General Theory of Systems: implications in the behavioral and social sciences.

Since its appearance, the General Systems Theory (TGS) has been constituted as a true revolution in the field of knowledge. Von Bertalanffy (1968/1992) points out regarding its application in the field of psychology, the following:

“… In psychology the basic conception used to be the« robot model ». The behavior had to be explained with the mechanistic stimulus-response (ER) scheme; conditioning according to the pattern of the animal experiment appeared as the foundation of human behavior; "meaning" had to be replaced by the conditioned response, the specificity of human behavior, etc., had to be denied. Gestalt psychology was the first to confront the mechanistic scheme… ”(p. 4 5)

As pointed out in this textual quote, the main contribution of the TGS to psychology was precisely to break the model of linear explanation that prevailed in science, thus giving a change in the approaches to explaining events, research after TGS, it would never be the same.

Almost two decades before the appearance of TGS, the foundations were laid for humanistic approaches to the conception of work and organization, which began to question the mechanistic approaches of Taylor and Fayol. Generating in the 1940s the so-called human relations movement, from the May studies (Juan, 2004), when TGS arrives it demonstrates its applicability in various areas of knowledge and profoundly influences the way of doing organization. In this regard, Von Bertalanffy (1968/1992) points out.

“… Sociology (and presumably history) deals with informal organizations, another recent advance is the theory of formal organizations, that is, of scrupulously instituted structures, such as the army, the bureaucracy, business companies, etc. This theory is "framed in a philosophy that accepts the premise that the only significant way to study organization is to study it as a system", and systems analysis deals with "organization as systems of mutually dependent variables"… "(p. 7)

With these affirmations the foundations of the study of organizations as systems are established, as it is well pointed out, the parts are in constant dynamism, constituting a process, and the set of processes that develop in a coherent whole, product of the dynamics between the parts is the system.

Other scholars took this principle in order to generate the first perspectives of organizations as systems, thus we have Tirst & Bamforth from the Tavistock clinic, who created the concept of socio-technical systems, in which it is postulated that the results of any unit The organizational aspects are explained from the interrelation between the two organizational subsystems: the Technical: made up of the immediate physical conditions, the space-time dimension of the production process, the level of specialization and automation, etc.; And the Social, for example: the personality of individuals, the assigned roles and the formal groups to which they belong, the network of internal social relations and with other organizations, etc. (Juan, 2004)

These considerations have been mentioned, knowing that there are more, in order to have an overview of the influence that TGS has had for approaches to study organization, such as behavior and formal organization theory.

1.2 Organizations and systems.

The human being itself is a system, and as such, lives surrounded by systems that vary according to their complexity and performance towards the environment, as Von Bertalanffy pointed out, the basic premise for understanding and analyzing an organization is to have a system vision, for which we dare to say that the systemic approach in its application and analysis of an organization, supports the application of deductive thinking (going from the general to the particular), that is, first analyzing the organization as a system for then go down to the details of the subsystems. In relation to this, Senn (1988) points out that when analyzing an organization, the organizational system as a whole must be analyzed and then the details of the information systems.

Chiavenato (2000) points out that organizations are a system of activities, that they are coordinated and aim to achieve a common goal; likewise, it affirms that there is organization from the interaction of 2 or more people. The main requirements for the existence of an effective system are the following:

There are people capable of communication, they are willing to act together, they want to achieve a common goal.

According to this same author, one of the characteristics of organizational systems is the disposition of the people who form it, to contribute in action; that is, a willingness to sacrifice control of their own behavior to benefit coordination to achieve the objective that unites them. This reason is the reason for the existence of roles and functions within organizations; differentiated, but interrelated.

Another aspect that should be highlighted is related to the complexity of organizations, an issue that is linked to organizational structures. It is worth mentioning that organizations must maintain a balance of activity with respect to the environment. In general, business initiatives in their beginnings maintain simple structures, without major complexities for production or human processes. As the demand for what is offered by the organization grows, it is natural for the organization to grow, in terms of structure, in order to satisfy the existing demand. This case is not only for "system outputs", growth also affects "system inputs".

According to Chiavenato (2000) the main characteristics of the complexity of a system are the following:

Complexity: Regarding the structure, vertical and horizontal differentiation between organizations. Anonymity: Referred to the emphasis that is made on tasks or operations but not on people. The important thing is that the activity is carried out not by the person who carries it out. Standardized routines: Procedures and channels of communication. Unofficial personalized structures: Proper to the informal structure. Trends towards specialization and the proliferation of functions: The objective is to separate the lines of formal authority of professional or technical competence. Size: Number of people and dependencies that make up the organization.

Organizations, as such, are living social organisms and therefore it is changing, they never configure a ready and finished unit, because it would lose the dynamism and activity, which are necessary to maintain the relationship with the environment in which the organizational system is immersed. Hence the importance of managing planned change.

Systems must be open, their counterpart, closed systems only exist in conceptualization, since interaction with the environment surrounding the system is necessary to acquire a stable state or dynamic equilibrium to the extent that it maintains its energy transformation capacity or work.

1.3 Katz and Khan's Organizational Systems Approach.

Katz and Kahn (1970, cited by Chiavenato, 2000) developed an organization model based on the TGS, it is worth rescuing in this model the role assigned to information and its transit in the organization. The characteristics of the model are described below.

Import - transformation - export of energy: This is the basis of the interaction of the system with the environment. The organization processes and transforms inputs into finished products, services provided, or a trained and qualified workforce. Systems are cycles of events: According to this model, all energy exchange is cyclical. Negative entropy: Entropy is the natural wear and tear they suffer. the systems. The organization needs to stop the entropic processes and re-supply itself with energy, this is known as Negative Entropy or Negantropy. Information as input, negative feedback and coding processes: Information based on “informational inputs” about the environment and its operation in relation to this. Negative feedback helps the system correct road deviations,a central mechanism or subsystem receives the information that the parts of the system send indicating the effects of the operation carried out, and then taking corrective measures. The coding process causes the system to react selectively to the signals with which it is tuned. Balance states and dynamic homeostasis: The input and output processes generate a balance (reason for the exchange of energy and relations between the parts) Systems have a natural tendency to homeostasis. The basic principle of sustaining the character of the system indicates that systems respond to or anticipate change through growth, which assimilates new energy inputs into the nature of its structure.The variations of this continuous adjustment do not always bring the system back to its original level. Differentiation: It is the multiplication and elaboration of functions that also entail the multiplication of roles and internal differentiation. Equality: For this characteristic, a system starting with different conditions and through different paths, it can reach the same final state. Limits and borders: The barriers between the system and the environment that define the radius of action and the degree of openness of the system with respect to the environment.Limits and borders: The barriers between the system and the environment that define the radius of action and the degree of openness of the system with respect to the environment.Limits and borders: The barriers between the system and the environment that define the radius of action and the degree of openness of the system with respect to the environment.

As we had previously pointed out, we rescued from this model the role that information plays in the system, which is the link that unites the different parts and allows the interaction between them. The entropy process would have, in a deficient information system, a special context to be able to develop; Without the information that communicates the operation of the parts and the development of the system as a coherent whole in relation to the environment, the parts would only be that, parts with isolated operation, the system losing its identity as such and thus generating the foundations for the death of the system.

Chapter II

Principles of Management Information System

In the previous chapter we have broadly analyzed the TGS based on the study and analysis of organizations, following what Katz and Kahn proposed and the role assigned to information, this chapter will focus on describing the importance of information and the main characteristics of Management Information Systems (GIS), and the organizational hierarchical levels at which the information reaches. The term Management Information Systems is not limited only to the information required by the managers, but to the information required by all those who make decisions.

2.1 Importance of GIS in the organizational system.

As we pointed out at the end of the previous chapter, a deficient information system offers the ideal context for the development of an entropic process, below we indicate the main implications of GIS, extracted from the review by Waterfield & Ramsing (1998)

Information is the basis of the functioning of the entire organization. The better the information in an organization, the better it will be able to manage its resources. Information is a competitive advantage. It allows effective decisions to be made regarding the future of the organization. The information system revolutionizes the work of the field staff. It allows supervisors a better control of the work under their responsibility. The GIS allows the establishment of management indicators.

Senn (1988) indicates that systems work best when they operate within tolerable levels of performance, these are called standards. For the standards to be met or exceeded, it is necessary to exercise control over the processes that the organization develops to meet its production and performance objectives; the information in this part plays a fundamental role since through it the performance of the organization as such is known.

According to this same author, there are four elements for a basic control model:

Standard for measuring acceptable performance. Measurement method for that acceptable performance. Way to compare actual performance with standard. Feedback method.

Any control process that is exercised in the organization would not have a systemic characteristic, if the information obtained as a result of comparing performance with the standard did not return to the subsystem that has been subject to control, if applicable, the subsystem would not have Parameters to improve the performance that it presents, for this reason, the information system in this part plays an important role in improving the functioning of the organization.

On the other hand, Rufasto (2002) points out the importance of having an information intelligence system, which he defines as “(…) a system for obtaining and recording data relevant to the activities of our company (…)” (p.34); Likewise, it stresses the need for an excellent information intelligence team, classifying the members of that team as follows:

Information hunters: They are dynamic analysts of information, and are the most aggressive and dynamic element of the information intelligence team. They are looking for a new business opportunity. Information collectors: Agents dedicated to daily and methodical review of a series of periodicals and reports. Recorders, filing cabinets and information processors: they process the information obtained by information hunters and gatherers. Experimenters - potential developers: Dedicated to analysis with the current resources of the company Opportunity classifiers: They are analysts of the company that systematically treat the located opportunity relationships, the raw information and the internal processing reports,in order to list the various business opportunities that are hidden from the naked eye. Human resources and organization analysts: They formulate qualitative and quantitative reports and analyzes of team performance, the efficiency of the organizational structure and the state of competencies and commitment of each agent of the company.

2.2 GIS: Definition.

The good operation, within the normal standards of a GIS, generates that the information can reach the hands of the people who make decisions. The quality of the information that arrives is based on other procedures and structures that are previously defined in the organizational strategy, and its processing depends on the specialization and differentiation of the positions within the organization; that is, the data that the human resources department selects and analyzes is different from the information that other departments such as marketing select and analyze (for example, the differentiation is evident); but on the other hand, the level of analysis and depth given to the information will be variable depending on the specialists and the hierarchical levels within the same department; for example,the depth in the analysis of the data of the person who occupies the position of Human Resources Manager, and of the person who occupies the position of Human Resources Practitioner (the specialization is revealed), therefore the experience and degree of specialization for the The department's objectives are filters for data analysis.

According to Waterfield & Ramsing (1998), a GIS is: “(…) a management information system is the series of processes and actions involved in capturing raw data, processing it into usable information, and then disseminating it to users in the way that these require it. ” (pp. 3 - 4) this last part, is the main characteristic of the information system, it has to reach users, otherwise an adequate collection and processing of data will be useless if it does not reach the hands of the person who requests it in the established time.

An information system does not only involve the use of a computer program and training for it, they involve communication between people about situations that affect the work and performance of members of the organization (Waterfield & Ramsing, 1998). These dynamics are human processes within the organization, which do not escape analysis in the study of GIS.

These same authors point out that systems are a set of elements that work together to achieve common objectives, and based on GIS, it mentions two types of systems:

Formal systems: Which are accepted and fixed definitions of data and procedures to obtain, store, process and deliver information. Informal systems: They are based on unexpressed rules of conduct.

On the other hand, it is important to note the difference these authors make with respect to data and information; Furthermore, this difference could well respond to many organizational problems that are beyond the analysis of the system. Any isolated, unprocessed event that does not reveal anything in isolation is considered “data”; For example: the fact that in the sales department a seller has reported a 5% reduction in sales in his area, it is more the same would apply, if this were the constant in 60% of the sales force, these are raw data, which is not processed. Processed or transformed data that helps someone make a decision or understand something better is considered "information"; following the same example,It is useless to present to the sales manager the invoices of 60% of the workforce that has presented this deficiency, what would correspond is to present the information regarding which products have been stopped being purchased by customers, the geographic areas affected, the market analysis to know the trend, among others.

As these authors point out, and taking into account the systemic perspective, which indicates that the inputs to the system must keep the organization provided with the necessary energy that will be processed to go out into the environment and maintain balance with the environment. An institution may be saturated with data and yet have little information, which would generate poor feedback from the system, this is one more condition for the ideal context of the entropic process.

2.3 Implications of the GIS in the organizational diagnosis.

With respect to the implications of the GIS for the organizational diagnosis, it is important to define within the organizational analysis model, the location and main characteristics within the model that the GIS complies with, as well as the structures in which it is supported, among others. Senn (1988) points out that the critical information that must be known is:

Non-formal channels How many interdependencies exist Key staff and functions Critical communication relationships (How does information circulate and how do areas interact?)

Pulido (2003) proposes an organizational analysis model called "Hierarchical Model of Organizational Transformation" by which he points out that the attributes of the organization are:

Ad hoc culture. Patterns of behavior shared by members of the organization, through each interpersonal contact; reflecting interaction styles, norms and values. Strategy. Organizational leadership management, based on the decisional aspects that management style and leadership development require. Design. Support required by an organization to transform inputs. The operation of this support considers the levels of communication and organizational design as part of its organization of work. Knowledge systems. They are the knowledge and technology that managers and collaborators have of their business. They are expressed in the knowledge and efficiency of the processes; as well as, in measurement and control systems, mediated by the use of computer systems.

The last variable of the model deserves special attention, in which the author points out that these processes are responsible for providing feedback on the organization's efficiency standards. In this variable, it also considers two dimensions: 1. Decisions for knowledge efficiency, made up of practice in decision-making and the interdepartmental relationship; 2. Measurement and control systems, made up of measurement systems, access to computer technology, and process control and supervision systems.

On the other hand, Zanabria (2005) proposes the “effective incorporation” analysis model by which he divides the organization into four parts, which he calls organizational pillars, these pillars are: 1. The strategic human part, 2. The part Human operating, 3. The content of work, 4. Organizational structure. Which are united by integrating factor that is the organizational culture, from the interaction of these parts, there are 6 central processes, which are:

Management Processes: Interaction of human talent, which allows directing people's actions to the strategic directions programmed for the organization. Productive Processes: Conjunction of human and organizational efforts to provide a service or a production system. Administrative Processes: Activities that directs the management or superior personnel to take care of the interests of the organization. Organic Processes: Interaction of the purely organizational area, characterized by the establishment of relationships of mutual trust, a clear delimitation of functions and flexibility of the organization to adapt to the environment.Identification or belonging: Feeling that people experience of being part of an organization,therefore, a psychological contract has been established that allows them to achieve personal objectives in exchange for effort and dedication at work. Action Criteria: Parameters that guide the development of people within organizations; in turn, they differentiate management plans with respect to the objectives set for the people who are part of the organization.

This author considers that information systems are part of organic processes, which give the organization the characteristics of being a living and social organism, with the necessary flexibility to adapt to changes in the environment. Another important element that can be rescued from this model is the use of technology, which is located in production processes, considers technology as the equipment and tools that people use to carry out their work.

There are different models of organizational analysis, we could well mention Mintzberg and the structure in five, the works of Lawrence and Lorsh and the model of analysis that they propose, Hax and Majluf, among others. These models that we have detailed, are typical of Peruvian authors and have been cited as examples to locate the importance of GIS within the organizational system.

2.4 What does a GIS cover?

For Waterfield & Ramsing (1998), the GIS have such an extension that they cover all the systems that an institution uses to generate the information and that will guide management decisions; In this sense, we could say that the main and support activities of the organization supported by the Michael Porter value chain are those that support the information necessary for information management in the organization.

The main activities of the organization, described in the Michael Porter value chain are as follows:

Internal logistics. Operations. External logistics. Marketing and sales. Service.

The support activities would be the following:

Infrastructure.Human resources.Technological development.Purchase of supplies.

Graph 3. The Michael Porter value chain.

Rufasto (2002) points out that the importance of the value chain is that it allows evaluating the value creation potential of a company; that is, the company can create value (increase the margin) using its competitive advantages, those that correspond to the nuclear competences, resident in some of the sections of the diagram. The importance of this diagram, for the purposes of the GIS, is to see the parts from which we can extract the information and use it to improve the performance of the organization. For example, if it is discovered thanks to the information circuit that the company has a good internal logistics system, efforts should be focused on that part and not on another, since the efforts provided to this part will be very effective in decreased costs, increased production volume, improved quality.

A GIS has its own characteristics that would determine its effectiveness. We will now establish three criteria with its own characteristics; These are: Thorough identification of information needs, effective communication between management and personnel in the systems area, and lastly, realistic expectations about information technology. (Waterfield & Ramsing, 1998)

Thorough identification of information needs.

Establishment of indicators that indicate the need for improvement in the information system. How they should be examined. Who should receive the information.

Effective communication between management and personnel in the systems area.

These parties must speak the same language. Establish a system that meets the need.

Realistic expectation about the use of information.

Users must know the scope of the system. Establishment of contingency plans. Training of users.

2.5 Levels of use of information.

According to Hurtubise (1984, cited by Waterfield & Ramsing, 1998) there are three levels of information use, it is important to know these levels since the information will vary depending on the use for which it is intended. There are three levels of information use:

Information needed for strategic planning: Generally used by the board or management for decision making and to verify if the organization is meeting its fundamental objectives. This information also supports decision making on the acquisition and disposal of resources. Strategic information is used as a forecast and deals with the future and relatively unknown situations. This information is long-term oriented.

Information necessary for management control: Information that reaches management in order to verify if resources are being well used and what is planned is being followed. Decision makers require this information to maintain control of the organization's activities and performance. The aim is that the organization can react in time to any alarm signal. This information is focused on the medium term. Information needed for operational control: The personnel in charge of carrying out daily activities need operational information that allows them to fulfill their tasks; for example: the development of training programs. Operational information allows the user to take a certain action.This information is focused on the short term.

2.6 Use of reports and information characteristics.

As we have already seen, information plays a strategic role within the organization, we have examined the importance of the effectiveness of the GIS. It should be noted now that the part that everyone sees and uses of a GIS is the report. (Waterfield & Ramsing, 1998)

The reports are the documents that contain the information, and these are the ones that reach the hands of the decision makers; therefore, from the quality of the reports, it can be assumed, the actions to be taken will be derived. The report is the finished product of the GIS.

The greatest weakness of a GIS is the poor structuring of the report, the poor level of information, and the education of users regarding the use of reports (Waterfield & Ramsing, 1998). Great information can be a zero left in the wrong hands.

On the other hand, if the information does not reach the staff in a useful way, the GIS is practically worthless (Waterfield & Ramsing), and as noted, these deficiencies provide the ideal context for the entropic process.

If we look at figure 4, we will see that the information varies in terms of details and content depending on the levels that will use it. Below we describe the characteristics of the information that is poured into the reports (according to Hurtubise 1984, cited by Waterfield & Ramsing, 1998)

Source: The information may be of internal origin, such as accounting reports, client portfolio, personnel reports, etc. or from external sources, as the strategic value of the information increases, such as: inflation rates, market trends, economic growth trends, current legislation, etc. Coverage: Strategic information deals with a diversity of topics, and aspects related to the institution as a whole. If we go down the pyramid, the information becomes more restricted and refers to individual, departmental and employee activities. Level of detail: Strategic information examines the performance of strategic aspects for the entire organization, and is usually compared with the standards established by other institutions,With this, an external source of information is configured, which brings us to a condensed level of detail. On the other hand, operational information requires a specific or detailed level of detail regarding the individual performance of different organizational activities. Time horizon: Strategic information looks ahead and is speculative. Instead, operational information is based on historical data. Management information compares current data with budgeted goals. Aging: Operational information is based on recent information. Instead, strategic information is based on old data; In order to make comparisons, the information must always be up to date. Accuracy: Accuracy is very important for operational personnel,since the organization's personnel must act on it. Management information may tolerate some inaccuracies. Strategic information is the one that tolerates the widest range of uncertainty since it deals with what may happen in the future.Frequency of use: Operational information should be generated frequently - monthly, weekly, even daily and in some cases on demand. Management information is less frequent, generally monthly or quarterly. Strategic information is only required on a periodic basis - usually once a year.Operational information should be generated frequently - monthly, weekly, even daily, and in some cases on demand. Management information is less frequent, generally monthly or quarterly. Strategic information is only required on a periodic basis - usually once a year.Operational information should be generated frequently - monthly, weekly, even daily, and in some cases on demand. Management information is less frequent, generally monthly or quarterly. Strategic information is only required on a periodic basis - usually once a year.

We have described the main characteristics of GIS, it should be emphasized now that the establishment of a GIS may require the restructuring of the entire organization, it may even affect cultural aspects of the organization, the implementation of a GIS specifically affects: (Waterfield & Ramsing 1998)

Modification of staff responsibilities. Re-design of human and operational processes. Rationalization of financial policies. Investment in computer technology.

Chapter III

GIS development and implementation

Until now the importance of the systemic approach for the analysis of organizations and the main characteristics of GIS has been analyzed, in this chapter we will analyze a proposal for the development and implementation of GIS, contemplating four main phases, which are: Conceptualization, evaluation and design, development and implementation and finally maintenance. We stress the importance of the last sentence with which we ended the previous chapter, “The establishment of a GIS may require the restructuring of the entire organization.”

3.1 Difference between analysis and system design

Senn (1988) points out specific differences between these terms, which must be established in this part:

Design: Regarding design, this author points out that it is the process of planning a new system within the company, with the aim of replacing the previous system. For this, the operation of the previous system and the implications of the use of technology to make it more effective must be previously understood. Analysis: Process used to collect and interpret the facts; It is the diagnosis of problems that these facts use in order to improve the system.

The author points out, with respect to information systems, that they represent the link that holds different components together in total, that they can effectively work towards the same objective.

3.2 Phase 1: Conceptualization

In this phase the organization defines the needs and carries out an initial evaluation of the viable alternatives. At the end of this phase, a strategic document will have been prepared that will present the course of action to be followed.

This phase includes the following activities:

Identify the needs of the organization. Determinants of what is feasible with respect to technology, staff capacity and financial resources. Proceed with an initial evaluation of the alternatives. Establishment of the report on the results obtained, which is the guide for phase 2.

This phase also includes the following stages:

Stage 1: Constitution of a working group. This is the starting point, it is necessary to previously analyze whether the contributions of external consultants will be required. The meetings of the working group should be held weekly for a period of 4 to 6 weeks, the members should include the representation of each level within the organization from management to field staff. Stage 2: Definition of needs. Critical stage which will produce important information. Documentation of current policies and procedures should be reviewed. If the information is not at hand, it is necessary to generate it, defining the needs and information flows existing in the organizational system, in order to project future need. Stage 3: Determine what is feasible. Taking into account the capacity of the personnel, the technological aspects and the costs. Stage 4: Evaluation of alternatives. In this part, the strengths and against each of the alternatives are analyzed, the range of alternatives is reduced, and the most appropriate option for the organization is decided, especially if one opts for change or improvement..Stage 5: Preparation of a final report. Once the needs of manual or automatic systems have been determined, the report must state the options chosen, the costs, schedules and course of action.

3.3 Phase 2: Detailed evaluation and design.

In this phase the organization carefully evaluates the systems that could be acquired. If you have decided to modify the system or design a custom system, you will need to discuss design issues.

This phase includes the following stages:

Stage 1: Detailed evaluation of the program. At this stage the performance of the system is evaluated, the evaluation schedule is established, for which it is essential to have fixed dates. The organization must verify if the proposal of the new system meets its needs and if it will give the expected flexibility. Stage 2: Completion of the design. At this stage it is necessary to be clear about the description and the flowchart on the way in which basic data is entered; Description and flow chart of the required personnel and their functions; Description and sample of everything that the new system will produce; Definition of all the indicators that will be generated. Stage 3: Completion of the GIS plan. Full details and specifications of the new system are presented, evaluation by management is expected.

3.4 Phase 3: System development and implementation.

The organization develops (refines or implements) the chosen system and implements it. This phase comprises the following stages:

Stage 1: System development. This stage can last from a week to a year. The importance of having a detailed plan of the implementation stages is emphasized, which allows permanent feedback from the user. Stage 2: Installation of technological equipment. Those that are necessary and expedite the flow of information. Stage 3: Preparation and review of documentation. Keep in mind that good documentation is the key to the proper use of the system. The information prepared will be useful for staff training. This documentation must take into account the changes that have occurred. Stage 4: System configuration. At this stage, the accessibility of the users is verified. Stage 5: Test. In cases of computer systems, the performance of the system must be known,therefore, a trial period is set aside. Stage 6: Data transfer. In computer systems, data transfer is one of the greatest imponderables. Stage 7: Training. First, identify who are the main actors in the new information system, and focus training on aspects of greater relevance according to hierarchical levels. Stage 8: Execution of parallel operations. Until the new system is in constant use, you must allow a period of use of the previous system in parallel with the new one, assigning certain information to pass through it.First, identify who are the main actors in the new information system, and focus training on aspects of greater relevance according to hierarchical levels. Stage 8: Execution of parallel operations. Until the new system is in constant use, you must allow a period of use of the previous system in parallel with the new one, assigning certain information to pass through it.First, identify who are the main actors in the new information system, and focus training on aspects of greater relevance according to hierarchical levels. Stage 8: Execution of parallel operations. Until the new system is in constant use, you must allow a period of use of the previous system in parallel with the new one, assigning certain information to pass through it.

3.5 Maintenance of the GIS audit system.

It refers to certain aspects to be dealt with after the GIS has been developed and the modifications and periodic audits that must be carried out to ensure that the system works properly are implemented. Which has to be detailed in the GIS planning.

Bibliographic references

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Waterfield, Ch. & Ramsing, N. (1998) Management Information Systems for Microfinance Institutions: A Practical Guide. Washington: CGAP / Word Bank. Consultative group for the poorest population.

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Zanabria, J. (2005) Effective incorporation model: A proposal for organizational analysis. Unpublished manuscript.