CONCEPTUAL APPROACHES TO THE TECHNIQUES FOR THE COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS OF INFORMATION IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
According to what is expressed by (Corbetta, 2007), qualitative research can be clearly distinguished from the quantitative model, by observing the differences that exist in the following dimensions of the research: its design, obtaining information, data analysis and production of results. Within this order of ideas and aligned with the thematic axes to be developed suggested by the professor of the Advanced Research Design Seminar in Management II, the fundamental aspects of the techniques used by the qualitative researcher for the collection of information and analysis of data in his scientific endeavor.
In the first place, it is convenient to point out that the collection of information is the technique used by the researcher to obtain the information that will allow him to understand the phenomenon studied. In the case of the qualitative researcher, she tries to carry out these activities in the same place where the participants experience said phenomenon since it allows them to observe the behavior and conduct interviews with the participants to know their points of view and interpret the experiences lived
Secondly, in relation to the analysis of the data, we have that they are the techniques that the researcher uses to discover the reality that the collected data contains. In the qualitative model, researchers carry out this analysis process using the inductive method, which allows them to generate theories from the data provided by human beings, who with their intelligence can perceive the reality that surrounds them.
Techniques for Information Collection in Qualitative Research
Before delving into the subject, let us specify the reflection of (Corbetta, op. Cit.), When expressing that there are: "three basic actions that man uses to analyze the social reality that surrounds him: observe, ask and read" (p. 302). The previous premise allows (Corbetta, op. Cit.), To consider that: “the data collection techniques of qualitative research can be grouped into three large categories, based respectively on direct observation, in-depth interviews and the use of documents ”(p. 302). Therefore, taking into account this recommendation, the cardinal points of these three categories will be highlighted, to try a methodological approach to why, through them, the qualitative researcher can obtain the necessary data and information in the development of his work.
Direct observation
Some authors agree that observation is and has been an essential axis in the processes of knowledge construction. This thesis contains many supporting factors since, for example, from an early age we learn to recognize the world around us through this human sense, although the meaning of observation and participant observation must be differentiated. In this regard (Corbetta, op. Cit.), He highlights the difference when stating: “the first indicates the technique for collecting data on non-verbal behavior, while the second refers to something more than a mere observation and includes the intervention direct of the researcher in the object studied ”(p. 304).
Within this framework, we have some of the conceptualizations of the participant observation method. In the first place (Marshall and Rossman, 1989, cited by Kawulich, 2005), who express: it is "the systematic description of events, behaviors and artifacts in the social setting chosen to be studied" (p. 1). There is also that of (DeWALT & DeWALT, 2002, cited by Kawulich, op. Cit.): “It is the process that empowers researchers to learn about the activities of the people under study in the natural setting through observation and participating in their activities… ”(p. 2). Finally, (Corbetta, op. Cit.) Points out:
We can define participant observation as a technique in which the researcher enters a specific social group: a) directly; b) for a relatively long period of time; c) in their natural environment; d) establishing a personal interaction with its members and e) to describe their actions and understand, through an identification process, their motivations (p. 305)
This last definition seems to include all the factors that must be present in a scientific observation since the role played by the qualitative observer is decisive to achieve the success of this method, considering the following: it collects the data by itself by observing the behavior of the participants; This activity takes place in the place where the phenomenon under study is observed and according to their ability and time of contact with the participants, they manage to insert themselves into the social dynamics that they investigate, in order to later understand and interpret the reality that the participants live.
Now, in relation to the origin of participant observation as a method, (DeWALT & DeWALT, 2002, cited by Kawulich, op. Cit.), They go back to the year 1879 when the researcher Frank Hamilton Cushing in charge of a work in the field From ethnology, he managed to insert himself for four and a half years in the North American indigenous community called “Zuni” to observe and understand their behavior. During that time, Cushing managed to learn their language and participate in their customs.
From the previous generalizations, the importance of the correct implementation of the participant observation technique is evident when it has been decided to use it. In this sense, the researcher must be prepared to know that he is going to observe, since everything cannot be observed. In this regard (Corbetta, op. Cit.), He proposes to highlight some possible objects of observation:
- The physical context, related to the physical environment where the studied phenomenon takes place The social context, that is, the human environment, identifying the main characteristics of the population, its history and any activity carried out in that community Formal interactions, those that occur in institutions and organizations where there are predetermined functions and links Informal interactions, conceived in the daily work of society that generate multiple physical interactions and ways of understanding reality The interpretations of social actors, since they are active subjects who understand and interpret the social reality that surrounds them.
Thus, another of the decisive aspects when exploiting the participant observation technique is associated with the role that the qualitative researcher must play during the development of their work. In this context, two perspectives are brought up, which must be taken into account by the researcher.
The first, related to the positions of the observer, thesis proposed by Junker (1960), cited by (Alvarez-Gayou, 2005), who divided the observer into four categories:
- Full observer. In this category, participants do not notice the presence of the observer, either because the observer is hidden or because the same dynamic that develops, the participants do not notice their presence. Observer as a participant. In this case, the researcher participates in the social dynamics but is not a member of the group, since he is only interested in carrying out the observation. Participant as an observer. Here the observer is much more linked to the observing group and the group is aware of the research activity. Full participant. In this category, the researcher is one more member of the group studied, but hides his role as an observer to avoid interruptions.
Finally, the second perspective is related to the recording of the observation, since one thing is to observe an event and the other is to record it. This fact may mean introducing errors in the research, product among others, due to an erroneous description of the observed behavior or to causing changes in the observed environment as a result of its study. That is why (Corbetta, op. Cit.), Proposes that the record must include the following:
When should this registration be made? As soon as possible. What must be registered? Description of facts, researcher interpretations and interpretations of the subjects studied. How should you register? Applying the criteria of distinction (between description and interpretation of the researcher and the subjects) and fidelity (when reproducing comments from the subjects, points of view, etc.). (p. 340)
In-depth interviews
Before explaining the method of the in-depth interview, the topic of the interview should be addressed in the field of qualitative research, considering of course, the unquestionable fact that it occurs through the use of language, whose universality is undeniable in any sphere of social scope. However, like the participant observation method, it is not the same to talk with someone spontaneously, than to initiate a controlled and systematic process of collecting information through methodological and procedural guidelines.
Within this order of ideas, let's review some definitions of this method. (Schwartz and Jacobs, 1984, cited by López and Deslauriers, 2011) express: “In this interrelation, the reality of a group is reconstructed and the interviewees are sources of general information, where they speak on behalf of different people providing data about social processes and cultural conventions ”(p. 2). For (Grawitz and others, 1984, cited by López and Deslauriers, op. Cit.), They consider that the interview: “is defined as the conversation of two or more people in a given place to discuss a matter. Technically, it is a method of scientific research that uses verbal communication to collect information in relation to a certain purpose ”(p. 3). For his part (Corbetta, op. Cit.), Defines the qualitative interview:
“As a conversation: a) provoked by the interviewer; b) carried out on subjects selected from a research plan; c) in a considerable number; d) that it has a cognitive purpose; e) guided by the interviewer and f) with a flexible and non-standardized question scheme ”(p. 344).
This is how this qualitative technique has been qualified, but let's see what its origin is. (Fontana and Frey, 2005 cited by Vargas, 2012), consider: “the use of the interview starts from ancient Egyptian times when population censuses were conducted” (p. 121). Also (Lucca and Berríos, 2003 cited by Vargas, op. Cit.): “They point out that it was not until the 19th century that the use of the interview strategy began to be documented in the collection of information for research uses ”(P. 121). However, the truth is that it has been during the twentieth century and so far in the twenty-first, when this technique has had a wide boom, as a result of the sustained impulse that qualitative research has had.
Now, let's specify some relevant aspects of this technique, such as the different types of qualitative interviews. Here the classification made by (Corbetta, op. Cit.) Will be adopted, who considers three types: Structured; Semi-structured and Unstructured. Let's go on to point out which are the cardinal points of each one.
Structured
In this classification, although the interviewee has the freedom to answer as he wishes, the formulation of the previously defined questions are posed in the same way for all participants and in the same order, which shows some kind of rigidity in the dynamics. It is a questionnaire with open questions.
Semi-structured
Here the researcher uses a script that contains the topics to be discussed during the interview, being able to arrange the order of the topics, sequence and way of asking the questions and decide on which topic to delve into. It differs from the previous classification among other aspects, because the questions are not defined in advance, although the content of the interview is.
Unstructured
In this case, the interviewer addresses some specific topics in the way that they consider most appropriate and can discuss some topics with some interviewees and other different topics with others, considering that some participants can provide information on some topics and not on others.
It is convenient to point out that to achieve success with this technique, the qualitative researcher must decide which category to choose, depending on the phenomenon studied or the objective to be achieved in the research, even the number of participants or the number of participants influences this decision. job-associated interviewers. Taking advantage of this aspect related to the researcher, it should be stated that the dynamics that occurs between the interviewer and the interviewee is not an easy activity. In this sense, (Corbetta, op. Cit.), Makes the following suggestions to the interviewers:
- Preliminary explanations. It is the initial approach to explain to the participant what the procedure is about and what is expected of her. Primary and secondary questions. Which allow the interviewer to enter the subject (primary) and delve into it (secondary). Exploratory questions. It is the formula that the interviewer uses (stimuli, questions, pauses, etc.), to go beyond the answers of the interviewee, that is, to try to know the real opinions of the interviewee. Language. It is related to the clarity with which the instruments or questions are posed to the interviewee. It allows good communication between the interviewer and the interviewee. Role of the interviewer. It is essential to achieve the success of the work, since it must constantly promote the interviewee,so that he collaborates with the interview but should not be so aggressive as to influence the answers and opinions of the interviewee. You must seek a dynamic relationship.
Regarding this last aspect related to the interviewer, here are some recommendations that a good interviewer should have:
- Possess sufficient knowledge of the topics addressed in the interview Formulate questions clearly and simply using understandable language Know how to listen and inspire confidence with the interviewee Make the most of the knowledge and experience of the interviewee, helping them to express their opinions without forcing their answers. Although he is the one who directs the process, not to impose himself on the way of thinking and the opinions of the interviewee. Develop the interpretive capacity to be able to understand and explain the phenomena studied. Help in the interview with the appropriate instruments for this purpose. such as: recorder, video camera, etc. allowing you to fully concentrate by not being careless while registering.
Use of Documents
Finally, the documentary technique for the collection of information in qualitative research is proposed, because it is essential to know the multiple documents of various kinds, which have generated and continue to be generated in humanity through institutions or in the individual sphere of human beings..
(Corbetta, op. Cit.): “A document is an informative material on a certain social phenomenon that exists independently of the researcher” (p. 376). Hence the importance it has, since in addition to helping us in the construction of our theoretical referential framework of the research, they allow us to know various historical, contextual (demographic, chronological, etc.), normative and other aspects, since the documents are conceived as a consequence of the multiple and complex social processes that occur in humanity and not thinking about the development of an investigation.
For example, the large number of diplomatic communications sent from one nation to another since ancient times, today allow the qualitative researcher to review their implications and innumerable interpretations to try to understand some socio-historical process. Following the theoretical sequence proposed by Corbetta, it can be stated that regarding the ownership of the documents, they could be summarized in two large groups: Personal and institutional.
Personal documents
This classification of documents plays a decisive role in social research since they allow us to know and understand what they were (if we are talking about historical processes), the motivations or ways of thinking of the people who wrote them and even more, if they cannot be accessed to them (because they died), through another technique such as the interview. This documentary category is subdivided into: autobiographies, diaries, letters, oral testimonies. The latter is subdivided in turn into: testimonies of life and oral history.
In short, the study of personal documents allows the researcher to have a chronological vision of the context in which the subject unfolds as well as the possibility of knowing unique and private details about some personal aspect of the author or of some person or event referenced there.
The importance of this documentary category can be seen personally when I read a book entitled: “Money Laundering. The life of a lawyer linked to organized crime ”. In this documentary evidence, its author Kenneth Rijock, an American lawyer, narrates his personal life, which basically consisted of designing, planning and executing illicit activities related to financial crimes. Rijock explains in detail, the various criminal typologies to create fake companies in the Caribbean Islands, with capital from drug trafficking that are later legitimized. All this information was very helpful for a research work that I was developing at that time.
Institutional documents
In this category, documents are observed by the institutionality of a nation or of any individuality working in institutional functions, which unlike personal documents, these are of a public nature. A classification of this type of documents can be: media, narrative, pedagogical texts, popular tales, judicial material, political, business, administrative documents and physical traces.
In view of the above, I think it is evident that every institutional act leaves some documentary mark, simply because it is a human activity that operates in an organized manner, in addition to the socio-historical studies of humanity, they have shown that this practice for a long time It is used. For example, who can deny the importance it has for a qualitative researcher, to be able to analyze demographic studies, artistic / cultural or legal material of any social group, which would allow to know what the institutional methodology is to address the situations that arise..
Techniques for the analysis of qualitative information
After having completed the data collection phase, the qualitative researcher must make sense of all that baggage of information that the participants have provided, through the selected techniques and instruments and of course, having been carried out through the required paradigmatic coherence.. In other words, all that information alone will not say anything until it is processed. In this regard, (Mayz, 2009), states: The "qualitative process of data analysis and interpretation of the results, constitutes one of the most relevant moments, if not" the most important "of the research process" (p. 57).
Now, let us know a definition of data analysis provided by (Rodríguez, Gil and García, 1996, cited by Mayz, op. Cit.):
… a set of manipulations, transformations, operations, reflections, checks that we carry out… in order to extract relevant meanings in relation to a research problem… carried out generally preserving its textual nature, putting into practice categorization tasks and without resorting to statistical techniques (p. 58)
Within this perspective and aligned with some authors, the main factors that intervene to build an accurate qualitative analysis of the data will be characterized below. These factors are: categorization, coding, theorizing and triangulation.
Categorization
(Osses, Sánchez and Ibáñez, 2006), consider that: “The categorization makes it possible to conceptually classify the units that are covered by the same topic”. (p. 123). In other words, the researcher must categorize the data, identifying, classifying and conceptually organizing them, in order to be able to delimit parts and later, know the interrelationships that may exist between these parts and the phenomenon studied. The ultimate goal is to achieve the maximum understanding of the reality studied. In this sense (Mejía, 2011), he proposes three categorization criteria: inductive, deductive and inductive-deductive. Here are some essential aspects of each:
- Inductive Criterion. In this classification the thematic units do not arise from a restrictive theoretical structure on the data. They are built with the progress of the successive examination carried out on the collected data. In this regard (Mejía, op. Cit.), He concludes: "The inductive coding strategy generates a categorization system that is the result of the intrinsic process of the same analysis of qualitative data" (p. 54). Deductive Criterion. In this characterization, the categories come from a previously defined theoretical framework, that is, they are deduced from a theory. Inductive-Deductive Criterion. In this case, it is a combination of the two previous criteria, whose methodology allows the approach of some general categories, coming from a theoretical framework and later, going to more specific categories,from the investigation of the information collected.
Coding
After the qualitative researcher has performed the categorization, based on the foundation of his criteria, the process of assigning a sign, a brand or symbol to each established category is proceeded, in order to identify each category. In this regard (Osses, Sánchez and Ibáñez, op. Cit.), They consider that the coding is:
The specific operation by which each unit is assigned a code (code) specific to the category in which it is considered included. The codes, which represent the categories, therefore consist of marks that we add to the data units, to indicate the category to which they belong. These marks can have a numerical or visual character (colors), making each number or color correspond to a specific category, although it is more common to use words or abbreviations of words with which the categories have been labeled. (p. 123)
In the framework of the analysis of the data collected in qualitative research, the method of categorization and coding is essential, because it is the beginning of the process of transforming a set of "raw data" to information ordered, classified and ready to be studied by the researcher, according to the selected methodological model.
Theorizing
The fact is unquestionable that the most expected by science is the construction of conceptual and explanatory formulations, based on the study and understanding of the phenomena, facts and multiple relationships that exist in the human dimension. Consequently, qualitative research emerges as an emergent research design, which does not use rigid initial work schemes, since the researcher can adapt some phases of the process, as he deepens in the complex and intricate network of interrelations and meta-relationships. that develop between human beings.
This is how a special peculiarity arises in the analysis carried out by the qualitative researcher, which will allow the construction of theoretical models from the understanding and explanation of the experiences lived by man in his daily life, which requires a systemic approach and with a deep sense of introspection. This feature is interpretation.
It is then proposed that the interpretive perspective of the qualitative model constitutes a hermeneutical moment in the research, which enables the development of comparative schemes between the information collected in the qualitative research and the concepts and theories established by the social sciences. This is how finally the theoretical formulation is forged from an equation where the reality studied and its comparison with the achievements achieved by knowledge intervene.
Of the previous generalizations, there is sufficient theoretical verification such as that formulated by the sociologists Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss, who developed their Grounded Theory in the sixties, where the possibility of theory creation is established, through the interaction between researcher and researchers. data, considering the following main elements: coding and categorization of the data, the method of constant comparison between the categories and theoretical sampling.
Triangulation
This technique allows the researcher to check the validity and reliability of the research, by showing that the trends observed in the data collected, remain in the same direction despite using other sources of information, instruments or techniques. In this sense (Mayz, op. Cit.), Expresses: “as a complementary process of the categorization process and constitutes a way of juxtaposing the different points of view that each actor or subject perceives of the phenomenon under study, as well as any information that it is obtained by different means ”(p. 61).
BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES
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