Study types
According to the level of scientific knowledge (observation, description, explanation) that the researcher hopes to reach, the type of study must be formulated, that is, according to the type of information that he hopes to obtain, as well as the level of analysis that he must carry out. The objectives and hypotheses raised above will also be taken into account.
The studies are classified into:
1) Exploratory or formulative studies
The first level of scientific knowledge about a research problem is achieved through exploratory studies; Their objective is the formulation of a problem to enable a more precise investigation or the development of a hypothesis. It allows the researcher to formulate hypotheses of first and second degrees.
To define this level, you must answer a few questions:
- Does the study you propose have little background in terms of its theoretical model or its practical application? Have no other studies been carried out on the subject? It seeks to make a theoretical compilation due to the absence of a specific model related to your research problem ? Do you think that your work could serve as a basis for further research?
The researcher must be clear about the level of scientific knowledge previously developed by other works and researchers, as well as the unwritten information that people have that, through their story, can help gather and synthesize their experiences. The reasons why the proposed study is exploratory or formulative must be specified. Ahem.: monographs and bibliographic research that seek to build a theoretical framework of reference.
When the researcher builds a theoretical and practical frame of reference, it can be said that this first level of knowledge is exploratory, which can be complemented with the descriptive one, depending on what the researcher wants or not.
“Their essential objective is to familiarize us with an unknown, novel or poorly studied topic. They are the starting point for further in-depth studies ”.
2) Descriptive studies
They are used to analyze what a phenomenon and its components are like and how it manifests. They allow to detail the phenomenon studied basically through the measurement of one or more of its attributes. For example, research in Social Sciences deals with the description of the characteristics that identify the different elements and components, and their interrelation.
The knowledge will be of greater depth than the exploratory one, the purpose of this is the delimitation of the facts that make up the research problem, such as:
- Establish the demographic characteristics of the investigated units (number of population, age distribution, level of education, etc.) Identify forms of behavior, attitudes of the people who are in the research universe (social behaviors, preferences, etc.)) Establish specific behaviors. Discover and verify the possible association of the research variables.
It identifies characteristics of the research universe, indicates forms of behavior and attitudes of the investigated universe, establishes specific behaviors and discovers and verifies the association between research variables. In accordance with the stated objectives, the researcher indicates the type of description that he intends to make. Use specific techniques in collecting information, such as observation, interviews, and questionnaires. Most of the time, sampling is used to collect information, which is subjected to a process of coding, tabulation and statistical analysis.
You can conclude with third degree hypotheses formulated from the conclusions that can be reached from the information obtained.
“These studies describe the frequency and the most important characteristics of a problem. In order to carry out descriptive studies, two fundamental elements must be taken into account: Sample, and Instrument ”.
You must answer some questions:
- Do you intend to identify elements and characteristics of the research problem? Do you seek to characterize the facts or situations by which your research problem is identified? The problem you pose and the facts you understand include forms of social behavior, attitudes, beliefs, ways of thinking and acting of a group? Do you hope that the results of your research will be the basis for the formulation of new hypotheses from which an explanatory knowledge begins?
3) Explanatory studies
They seek to find the reasons or causes that cause certain phenomena. Its ultimate objective is to explain why a phenomenon occurs and under what conditions it occurs.
“They are oriented to the verification of causal hypotheses of the third degree; that is, identification and analysis of the causes (independent variables) and their results, which are expressed in verifiable facts (dependent variables).
Studies of this type involve researcher efforts and a great capacity for analysis, synthesis and interpretation. Likewise, you must state the reasons why the study can be considered explanatory. Its realization supposes the intention of contributing to the development of scientific knowledge ”.
To define this type of study, consider the following questions:
- Are the results of your research aimed at testing third degree hypotheses? The hypotheses you have raised are constructed with variables that in turn contain other variables? The hypotheses you have raised establish the way in which a certain characteristic or occurrence is determined on the other hand? Can the results of your work be a contribution to the theoretical model of the explanation of facts and phenomena that can be generalized from your research problem?
4) Correlational studies
The researcher tries to visualize how various phenomena are related or linked to each other, or if, on the contrary, there is no relationship between them. The main thing in these studies is to know how a variable can behave knowing the behavior of another related variable (they evaluate the degree of relationship between two variables).
5) Experimental studies
In them, the researcher wants to check the effects of a specific intervention, in this case the researcher has an active role, as he carries out an intervention.
In experimental studies the researcher manipulates the conditions of the investigation.
In health, this type of study is carried out to evaluate the efficacy of different therapies, preventive activities or for the evaluation of health planning and programming activities. In follow-up studies, individuals are identified based on their exposure, whereas in experimental studies it is the researcher who decides the exposure.
6) Non-experimental studies
In them the researcher observes the phenomena as they occur naturally, without intervening in their development.
7) Analytical studies (Case-control study)
This type of study identifies people with a disease (or other variable of interest) that we study and compares them with an appropriate control group that does not have the disease. The relationship between one or more factors related to the disease is examined by comparing the frequency of exposure to this or other factors between cases and controls.
Biases: the precision and validity of a study
Regardless of the topic and objectives of a study, which may be of greater or lesser interest to the reader or to the scientific community, what should always be pursued is that the study is accurate and valid.
Every study must be understood as a measurement exercise in each of the planning, execution and interpretation sections. It is therefore necessary to formulate objectives in a clear and quantitative way in order to make it clear from the beginning what is to be measured. If this first step is poor or unclear, the quality of a study falters. The elements that threaten these measurements are: Random Error and Systematic Error.
Types of research
There are very diverse treatises on the types of research. The controversies to accept the different typologies suggest confusing situations in styles, forms, approaches and modalities. Strictly speaking, and from a semantic point of view, types are defined systems for obtaining knowledge. A synthesis of the types shown by different authors on the subject is presented.
According to the source of information:
- Documentary investigation Field investigation According to the extent of the study: Census investigation Case investigation (Survey).
According to the variables:
- Experimental, almost experimental, simple and complex.
According to the level of measurement and analysis of the information:
- Quantitative research Qualitative research Qualitative-quantitative research Descriptive research Explanatory research Inferential research Predictive research
According to the data collection techniques:
- High and low structured research Participant research Participatory research Projective research High or low interference research
According to its temporary location:
- Historical research Longitudinal or transversal research Dynamic or static research
According to the object of study:
- Pure research Applied research.
Research Methods
Research Method is the rigorous procedure, formulated in a logical way, that the researcher must follow in the acquisition of knowledge. "The method is constituted by the set of processes that man must undertake in the investigation and demonstration of the truth."
The method refers to the procedures that can be followed in order to prove the hypothesis, meet the objectives or give a specific answer to the problem that was identified, it begins by defining the starting point, what will be observed first instance. If you start from specific situations and hope to find information about them to analyze them with a general theoretical framework, you are going to refer to induction. If you start from general situations explained by a general theoretical framework and are going to apply them in a concrete reality (your research object), you are going to use deduction. The important thing is that you are clear about where the knowledge comes from and where you hope to go. The method you hope to follow in the investigation must always do so with reference to the problem posed.
The cientific method
It is the procedure or set of procedures that are used to obtain scientific knowledge, the working model or general guideline that guides the investigation.
The method for obtaining the so-called scientific knowledge is a rigorous procedure, of a logical order, whose purpose is to demonstrate the truth value of certain statements. The word method comes from the roots: meth, which means goal, and odos, which means way. Therefore, the method is the way to reach the goal.
Method and methodology are two different concepts. The method is the procedure to achieve the objectives. Methodology is the study of the method.
Concepts of scientific method:
- Efi de Gortari (1980) writes: “The scientific method is an abstraction of the activities that researchers carry out, concentrating their attention on the process of acquiring knowledge.” Konstantinov (1980) affirms: “Historical materialism is the only certain method to study social phenomena… ». Severo Iglesias (1976) points out:« The method is a path, an order, directly connected to the objectivity of what you want to study…. Methodological demonstrations always involve a statement regarding the laws of human knowledge in general… "Mario Bunge (1969) writes:" The scientific method is the research strategy to search for laws… "Kerlinger (1981) describes the method scientific as: "The systematic way in which thought is applied in research, and is reflective in nature."According to De la Torre (199l), we must consider the method as "a logical process, arising from the reasoning of induction." In the opinion of Lasty Balseiro (199l), the general method of science "is a procedure that is applied to the entire sky of research within the framework of each knowledge problem.
The study of the method, is also called methodology, and covers the various concrete procedures used in research and discussion about its characteristics, qualities and weaknesses. Thus, we speak of "research methodology" to refer to the steps and procedures that have been followed in a specific investigation, to designate the specific work models that are applied in a specific discipline or specialty.
All research starts from a set of ideas and propositions that deal with reality and its descriptions and explanations; the scientist, however persuaded of the truth of these propositions, will not be able to sustain them until, in some way, they can be verified in practice. A proposition is verifiable when it is possible to find a set of facts, previously delimited, that are capable of determining whether or not it is true.
Another element of scientific procedure is the systematic use of inference, or deductive reasoning. Inferring means drawing consequences from a principle or assumption. Inference operates during research and generally in the following way: once a hypothesis is formulated, possible practical consequences are deduced from it, which are then in turn subjected to verification.
The observation
It is an important procedure in scientific research, it can be understood as "the process by which certain existing features in reality are deliberately perceived by means of a prior conceptual scheme and based on certain purposes generally defined by a conjecture to be investigated". Observation assumes special conditions:
- It must serve to achieve results of the objectives set out in the research. It must be planned in a systematic way. The researcher must define what she wants to observe and what its possible results are. It must be systematically controlled by the researcher and be related to theoretical propositions related to the research object. Therefore, whoever observes must know in depth the theoretical framework on which they base their research.
Some methods of knowledge
The breadth of criteria in the forms of research has produced different methods to obtain knowledge. Some of the most common are:
- Induction-deduction.Analysis-synthesis.Experiment.Explanation.Axiomes.Structure.Dialectics.Mathematics.Mechanicism.Functionalism.Historical materialism.Systems.
Induction-deduction
Induction consists in going from particular cases to generalization; It begins with the observation of particular phenomena with the purpose of reaching general conclusions and premises. Deduction, in going from the general to the particular; It begins with the observation of general phenomena in order to point out the particular truths. The deductive process is not sufficient by itself to explain knowledge.
It is useful mainly for logic and mathematics, where knowledge of science can be accepted as true by definition. Something similar occurs with induction, which can only be used when, from the validity of the particular statement, the truth value of the general statement can be demonstrated. Induction and deduction are two methods of knowledge that are complementary. The combination of both methods means the application of deduction in the elaboration of hypotheses, and the application of induction in the findings. Induction and deduction have greater objectivity when they are considered probabilistic.
Analysis and synthesis
Analysis and synthesis are processes that allow the researcher to know reality. The analysis handles judgments, it is a process of knowledge that begins by identifying each of the parts that characterize a reality, you can establish the cause-effect relationship between the elements that make up the object of investigation. The synthesis considers the objects as a whole, the interrelation of the elements that identify the object. The method that uses analysis and synthesis consists of separating the object of study into two parts and, once its essence is understood, building a whole. Analysis and synthesis are two processes that complement each other in one.
Experimentation
The experimental method has been one of the most successful ones. Applies the observation of phenomena, which at first is sensory. With abstract thinking hypotheses are elaborated and the experiment is designed in order to reproduce the object of study, controlling the phenomenon to test the validity of the hypotheses.
Explanation
It consists of developing models to explain the why and how of the object of study. Systematic explanation applies.
Axioms
It uses symbols to which it assigns value (the axiomatic method). The symbolized representation of a multiplicity of objects allows the analysis of phenomena.
Structure
Considers as an element of study the structure of objects, which is inherent to elements and systems. The structure has its own meaning, regardless of its elements.
Dialectics
The method considers objects and phenomena in the process of development. YaJot explains “Dialectics is the science of the general laws of movement and development of nature, of human society and of thought, the science of the universal concatenation of all the phenomena that exist in the world. And precisely for that reason it is opposed to all metaphysics… »
«The true scientific theory was created by Marx and Engels…. It is by its essence a revolutionary theory. Therefore, materialism and dialectics, in their unity and connection…. they are the theory and method of Marxism. '
Research with this method implies a transformation of reality. The analysis and synthesis used in the process of abstraction must be guided by the categories of the materialist dialectic (contradictions, content and form, cause and effect, among others), in such a way that mental abstraction allows the reproduction of processes and objects in its development and transformation.
According to de Gortari, in the study of method, "it is particularized in as many branches as there are scientific disciplines and, within them, it specializes until it becomes singular."
In the research methodology there are several methodological proposals that guide the apprehension of reality. Among the main ones are:
Mathematical Methodology
Number is the substance of which all things are made up, all objects. Says Gutiérrez: «The geometric representation leads to elaborate mental constructions that identify material objects, to then make calculations on the synthesis or reproduction of the objects. Under this assumption the creation of postulates is achieved that, by means of mathematical formulas, are applied to similar cases ».
Mechanistic methodology
It tries to explain vital phenomena through the laws of mechanics, all understood as a system that is based on the laws of Isaac Newton. The subject acts as a mirror that reflects reality.
Functionalism
"Functionalism is influenced by metaphysics in that it accepts change in some parts of the system, so that it continues to function, but rejects the change or transformation of the entire system." The social group is understood as an interrelated unit and in balance.
"Functionalism starts from a methodology interpretation aimed at explaining and founding social balance, which means preserving established social conditions…"
Structuralism
To obtain knowledge it is necessary to observe the real, build models and analyze the structure. «A structure is a transformation system that implies laws as a system…. It includes the characteristics of totality, transformation and self-regulation ”.
Historical materialism
«Historical materialism is the science of the general laws that govern the development of society…. It gives the only certain scientific solution to the theoretical and methodological problems of the social sciences.
It is the most important method; it is governed by constant movement and transformation. He maintains that the mode of production determines the structure of society.
General systems theory: Its object of study is the system, understood as a set of interrelated elements in a whole. Its author is Ludwig von Bertalanffy, who recognizes the philosophical influence of neopositivism, which uses quantitative techniques and statistical procedures, especially the calculus of probabilities, which were decisive in the formation of the general theory of systems.
"The determination of concepts in the general theory of systems, the fundamental concepts of this are adopted from other sciences, following the objective of a systemic proposal for the unification of science and scientific analysis."
Multiple approaches have been postulated that broaden the perspective of systems theory, including: communication theory, game theory, and decision theory.
A classification of research methods
Some authors such as Duverger and Selltiz, when referring to the methods, speak of schemes or levels of investigation, according to their explanatory capacity and the sophistication or rigor of their procedures. They agree to order them in three stages. Adding a 4th category (comparative causal research) as described by more recent authors, such as Kerlinger, Becerra and Donald Ary.
Level I: Exploratory studies.
For Claire Selltiz, at this level, "an advance in the knowledge of a phenomenon is sought, often with the purpose of better specifying a research problem or to be able to make other hypotheses explicit". Consequently, this research scheme must be flexible in order to allow the reconsideration of different aspects of the phenomenon, as it progresses. “In practice, the most difficult part of an investigation is the initiation; the most careful procedures during the last phases of an investigation are of little value if one has started on an incorrect or inadequate principle ”.
For these reasons, exploratory studies are highly recommended for novice researchers and undergraduate students. Other purposes that are frequently pursued are: to increase the researcher's familiarity with the problem area and subsequently to conduct a more structured study of the following levels; within this framework it is possible to: clarify concepts; obtain a census of problems; establish preferences for further research and propose well-founded hypotheses. Its methodology includes two types of actions:
- Study of the documentation; Direct contacts
The first of them refers to the reconstruction of the work carried out by others: review of files, reports, studies and all kinds of documents or publications. Direct contacts with the problem to be studied can be made after or simultaneously with the documentation review. Probably only a small part of the existing knowledge and experience has been arranged in written form.
Examples of thematic areas of exploratory studies in pedagogy students can refer to: addiction to alcohol or other drugs, their eating habits in class time, behavior in the library area, leaderships and informal organizations.
Descriptive studies (Level II)
Fundamentally they are directed to the description of social or educational phenomena in a specific temporary and special circumstance. Different levels of inquiry differ in the type of question they can ask. While in exploratory research questions are not asked that lead to precise problems, but problem areas are explored, in this 2nd Level the questions are guided by descriptive schemes and taxonomies; their questions focus on the variables of the subjects or the situation.
He wonders about the How…? When…? What relationships are there (between variables)? It is difficult at this level to reach the Why? that are more in line with causal type designs (Levels III and IV). J. Padúa states that descriptive studies result in a diagnosis.
Comparative causal studies (Level III)
When you want to establish cause and effect relationships, or establish differences in certain variables between groups of students, the most direct path that the researcher chooses is the experimental method, controlling all the intervening variables and modifying the independent variables in his own way to appreciate its possible effects on the dependent variables.
Unfortunately, the complexity of social phenomena does not always allow controlling or manipulating various variables, which can only be observed as presented, for example: the profession of the proxies, the number of siblings, the interests of the students, etc.
Another strong limitation to experimentation in education are the ethical considerations regarding the manipulation of human beings.
These designs are also known by the Latin term "ex post facto" which means, after the event occurred. Consequently, the researcher encounters the effects of something that is happening (slope variable) and from these effects, the possible causes that have already occurred are investigated. In the ex post facto study, the independent variable belongs to the past and cannot be modified by the researcher, it is said to be an attributive variable. In contrast, in experimental designs, independent variables arise in the present and can be modified according to the researcher's plan; they are said to be active variables.
Experimental Designs (Level IV)
Experimentation is an observation caused with the purpose of achieving a certain objective, in it the conditions (independent variables) that determine a fact are deliberately modified to record and interpret the changes that occur in said phenomenon (dependent variable).
In these designs, the axis element is the proposition of a causal hypothesis, which establishes relationships of CAUSE EFFECT in the development of certain events. The experiment has the character of a means of proof, which is planned deductively to gather evidence that allows inferring the value of the hypothesis, according to the classical model of the Scientific Method.
Classification of research studies (According to another author)
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS. In them the researcher wants to check the effects of a specific intervention, in this case the researcher has an active role, since he carries out an intervention.
NON-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS. In them the researcher observes the phenomena as they occur naturally, without intervening in their development.
Another dimension comprises the degree of structuring imposed in advance on the study, QUANTITATIVE STUDIES tend to be highly structured, so that the researcher specifies the main characteristics of the design before obtaining a single piece of data.
On the contrary, the design of QUALITATIVE STUDIES is more flexible; it allows and even encourages adjustments, in order to take advantage of the information gathered in the early stages of its implementation.
Another important dimension refers to the employment that the study of the temporal dimension does. The DESIGNS TRANSVERSE involve collecting data from a single cut in time, while the longitudinal designs gather data in two or more times. The application of a longitudinal design is recommended for the treatment of research problems that involve trends, changes or developments over time, or in cases where the temporal sequence of phenomena is to be demonstrated. TREND studies investigate a particular phenomenon in the course of time, based on the repeated taking of different samples from the same general population.
In COHORT STUDIES, a certain phenomenon is examined over time using a particular subpopulation (usually a population group or cohort of certain ages). LONGITUDINAL studies in which the same sample of subjects is questioned two or more times are known as SEGMENT STUDIES. Similarly, FOLLOW-UP STUDIESthey study the same subjects in two or more moments, who generally have received a treatment or share a particular characteristic of interest; The follow-up thus seeks to study its subsequent development. Longitudinal studies are usually expensive, require a greater investment of time and involve numerous difficulties such as attrition (loss of subjects over time); however, they are often of great value by virtue of the information they provide.
The research seeks to elucidate cause-effect relationships. Non-experimental studies employ retrospective or prospective designs for this purpose. In RETROSPECTIVE DESIGNS, the researcher observes the manifestation of some phenomenon (see dependent) and tries to retrospectively identify its antecedents or causes (see independent). The ORIENTED STUDIES begin with observing certain presumed causes and advance longitudinally over time in order to observe the consequences. Prospective research is usually initiated after retrospective research has produced important evidence regarding certain causal relationships. Example:
| Table 1. Types of Epidemiological Studies I | |
| Experimental | Non-Experimental |
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| Table 2. Types of Epidemiological Studies II | |
| Descriptive | Analytics |
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References
- C. Selltiz; M. Jahoda and others "Research methods in social relations" 4th edition pp 67-70 Edit. RIALP Madrid 1970, p.69. Ander-Egg, E "Social Research Techniques" Lumen Argentina 1995 24th edition, p.35. Ander-Egg, E Op.cit. p.38 Ander-Egg, E Op.cit. p.45 http://perso.wanadoo.es/aniorte_nic/progr_asignat_met_investigac4.htm http://www.aibarra.org/investig/tema0.htm#Tipos%20de%20investigation Ernesto de la Torre and Ramiro Navarro, Research Methodology, p.3. Carlos A. Sabino. The investigation process. Buenos Aires, Editorial Lumen - Humanitas, 1996. p.156-165. C. Selltiz; Op.cit. pp 67-70. Jorge Padúa. "Research Techniques applied to Social Sciences" p.32 Economic Culture Fund. Mexico 1993.
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