The present work guides the development of the research, passing through a group of sections structured in such a way that they describe the state of the art and the practice on the subject that is addressed as an object of study. The bases of the research are supported by a group of interrelated elements, allowing an understanding of the subject to emerge.
Its structure is shown in figure 1, where the elements to be treated as well as their interrelation are exposed.
In general, the chapter pursues:
• Determine the characteristics that determine a QMS
• Determine the contributions and shortcomings of the methodologies for the design of a QMS.
At present there are three terms that are handled interchangeably in most of the literature related to organizational performance: administration, direction or management; there is a group of authors who become defenders of the supremacy of one or another term over the rest and another group who consider it synonymous and see no problem in alternating them.
Management was nothing more than a dynamic, interactive and efficient process; consisting of planning, organizing, leading and controlling the actions in the entity, developed by a management body through the use of groups of people and their authority for the establishment, achievement and improvement of the purposes of constitution of the organization, counting with knowledge of laws and principles, of society, human nature and technology as well as information in general.
1.1.1. Quality as a concept
The origin of the word quality is in the Latin "qualitas" and it was used for the first time by Cicero (106 - 43 BCE), a philosopher of antiquity, to express this concept in the Greek language. In philosophy it is known as the categories that reflect important aspects of objective reality (Rosental, 1981), however its meaning has been transformed over time (Moreno Pino, 2003), conditioned by the development imposed by the satisfaction of needs each increasingly demanding of society, in fact the author considers it to be one of the terms with the greatest number of meanings in the business world.
Yamaguchi (1989); As a result of the analysis, it proposes that quality is the set of qualities that determine the degree to which an object, resulting from actions carried out by a subject, in the various stages of its life cycle, manages to promote a result with certain characteristics, favorable for a recipient with a certain frame of reference.
The Japanese Keiichi Yamaguchi believes that: “good quality is not only the quality of the products, which is quality interpreted in a narrow way (qualities), but also means the volume of production that, when you want, you get the quantity necessary and at the lowest possible cost so that it has a good price, or at least a reasonable price, and also, an after-sales service, fast and good for the peace of mind of the buyer, including everything mentioned above that its total character be the most conducive ”(Yamaguchi, K. 1989, P 33).
Taking into account the concept shown by Juran (1988), defended by Schroeder (1992), who expresses that quality is understood as “suitability for use”, which, depending on the object and the recipient, responds to the satisfaction of the client or of all interested parties; the author defends then, that from here this will be the guiding concept in the investigation.
Assuming the claim made by Schroeder (1992) that "many organizations today produce a mixture of goods and services" where, according to (Chase 1978), the 0% customer contact classification tends to disappear, it has been decided to expose in figure 2 the dimensions to consider to achieve suitability for use:
The importance of the systemic - procedural and participatory approach to achieving total quality is evident. Therefore, the author results in the need to involve each and every one of the organization's processes to achieve it.
On the other hand Moreno Pino (2003) expresses that it is beneficial and practical rather than finding a concept, being aware of the different characteristics of quality, which are: dual (manufacturers and service providers must be able to put themselves in the place of customers and not only as producers or service providers), relative (which for some people is of excellent quality, for others not and vice versa), dynamic (which is today of excellent quality, in a later period, either in the long, medium or short term, it may no longer be, due to the ever-growing needs of the human being), participatory (in the achievement of quality as a whole, all the people in a business organization contribute to achieve it), multidimensional (quality, quantity, opportunity, price, after-sales service,environmental), systemic and procedural (quality as a whole is obtained from the interrelation of a set of key processes that ensure it, which form a highly complex process system).
1.1.2. Quality management. An approach to the concept
The ISO 9000: 2000 standard defines quality management as a management system to direct and control an organization with respect to quality, understanding a management system as a system to establish policy and objectives and to achieve said objectives.
Taking into account the concepts analyzed above, quality management can be defined as a dynamic and interactive process consisting of planning, organizing, leading and controlling the actions in the entity, to achieve the adequacy to the use of the products that it carries out, as a purpose constitution of the organization.
Under this precept, quality management will be treated in this research. There is also full agreement with Deming's cycle of continuous improvement as plan-do-check-act; where the "planning", the organization and the leadership lead to "make" a product in accordance with the specified requirements, that is to say that it adjusts to the use that will be given to it, where the verification and the performance, as components of the control (Moreno Pino, 2003), allow feedback and dynamics towards the spiral evolution of customer satisfaction, which is undoubtedly the purpose of creating the organization (Kotler, 2000).
Therefore, the need to involve all the processes from their planning, organization and control is denoted.
1.2. Trends in Quality Management. From the first attempts to full quality
Quality human needs have existed since the dawn of history, however, the means to satisfy those needs have undergone extensive and continuous changes, being addressed by different authors such as (Gutiérrez Pulido, 1997; Luís Arroyo, 1999; González González, 2002a; Moreno Pino, 2003; Pérez Campdesuñer, 2006; Fuentes Frías, 2006a).
In general, they all agree on the existence of four fundamental stages that can be observed in the following figure:
The essential characteristics that determined each stage have been the following (Gutiérrez Pulido, 1997; Luís Arroyo, 1999; González González, 2002a; Moreno Pino, 2003; Pérez Campdesuñer, 2006; Fuentes Frías, 2006a):
Stage 1. Quality inspection
• Determined by a scenario where: demand is much higher than supply, quality is synonymous with a posteriori inspection, the quality function does not add value to the product, there are new technologies and products arising from the 2nd World War
• Consequently: whoever produces more sells, for the manufacturer a customer complaint is unimaginable, the objective of the quality function is to separate defective products, quality control is the inquisitor, high quality costs and low productivity.
Stage 2. Statistical quality control
• Determined by a scenario where: the markets are saturated and the customer seeks the best price, the objective is to reduce costs, emphasis is placed on rationalization and prevention
• Consequently: complaints begin (although they are simply “annoying”), the concept of quality costs arises, and there is extensive use of statistical control.
Stage 3. Quality assurance
• Determined by a scenario where: supply is greater than demand, great improvements in productivity are experienced (automation, numerical control, robotics, etc.), it is cheaper to prevent failures than to “cure” them, the customer demands quality and quality is defined as "fitness for use"
• Consequently: the concept of system and quality assurance is considered in all stages of the life cycle, the first sectoral crises appear; In addition, the concept of prevention / Murphy's Law, quality is assured, quality is put at the job level, claims are expensive and interest in product quality emerges.
Stage 4. Total quality management
• Determined by a scenario where: the supply is much greater than the demand, "complete solutions" are offered, the client imposes its law, the client not only demands product quality but also the services that accompany the product and quality is defined as "customer satisfaction"
• Consequently: new and deeper sectoral crises appear, service companies join the quality improvement strategy, quality is everyone's business, and it is necessary to achieve a general adherence to the cause of quality
Unquestionably, this evolution has been marked by elements essentially determined by the customer. Due to this, the business reorganization has caused the subsistence of many organizations and the disappearance of others (Gutiérrez Pulido, 1997; Fuentes Frías, 2006b). Undoubtedly, in the internal order, the power of staff involvement, as well as the efficient management of all organizational processes, place the key to success in the adoption of the maximum evolutionary step (Hammer, 1994; Ballé, 1995; Benoít, 1995; Zaratiegui, 1999; Luís Arroyo, 1999; AENOR, 2000; ISO9001:, 2000; ISO9004:, 2000; Madrigal, 2001; Peters, 2001; Beltrán Sanz, 2002a; Madrigal, 2002; González González, 2002a; González González, 2002b; Moreno Pino, 2003; León Lefcovich, 2005; Pérez Campdesuñer, 2006; Fuentes Frías, 2006b).
It exalts the attention when seeing figure 3 how the stages have evolved in increasingly shorter periods of time, demonstrating the speed of change in customer requirements, in addition to the rapid adaptation of organizations to them. It is alarming, therefore, that total quality management is a stage that has been extended over time, even when the characteristics that determine it are clearly known. Unsurprisingly, it has cost organizations more to deal with the internal links and the people who sustain them than with an arsenal of diverse and complex techniques.
As part of the spiral evolution, it is known that this last stage will be followed by another, to the extent that almost all organizations overcome it.
Peters (2001) foresees that beyond total quality comes a whole trend dominated by innovation and business flexibility to adjust to changes, which he names “Wow”. He believes that the hallmark of future successes will be the emotional reactions that are triggered by new features in creative products, which captivate and intrigue new customers. To achieve this, it is necessary for companies to question the improvement processes introduced in the 1980s and dedicate themselves to breaking the mold and reinventing.
Although Peters' proposal is fascinating, first organizations have to face the challenges currently imposed by total quality management, which can be concluded that companies have not achieved it.
1.3. Quality Management approaches. Contributions and shortcomings
According to (González González, 2002a; Moreno Pino, 2003; Pérez Campdesuñer, 2006) there are three fundamental approaches through which quality management has been developed, which although they have common points; They also have some essential differences, as shown in the following figure:
Each of these approaches will be analyzed below in order to evaluate their contribution to the development of total quality management, which is recognized by (Gutiérrez Pulido, 1997; Fernández Hatre, 2000; Peters, 2001; González González, 2002a; González González, 2002b; Moreno Pino, 2003; Pérez Campdesuñer, 2006; Fuentes Frías, 2006a), among others, as the current status of the issue.
1.3.1. Gurus approach
Since its inception, what currently involves quality management, was needed the contribution of scholars of the subject or quality gurus, as they are known today, who with their approaches and ideas have generated important knowledge for the administration and operation of highly competitive organizations.
According to (Gutiérrez Pulido, 1997; González González, 2002a; Moreno Pino, 2003), the main authors and precursors of modern concepts of quality were firstly "the Americans", who began their teachings in the early 50s, then " the Japanese "who in the last stage of that decade continued to enrich the legacy that lasts today and in the 70s and 80s a new generation of authors called the" new western wave "was born.
The most remarkable thing about the legacy of the first generation of gurus is the effectiveness with which they introduced change in Japanese industry, starting with the application of statistical process control, which put that country on the path to world leadership in product quality and production processes. Three are the most prominent: Edwards W. Deming, Joseph M. Juran and Armand V. Feigenbaum.
The second generation provided a series of simple tools and methodologies, the concept of mass training at all levels and teamwork. Here are the teachers Kaoru Ishikawa, Shingeo Shingo, Genichi Taguchi and Shigeru Mizuno.
The third focused fundamentally on raising awareness of the importance of quality in its various approaches such as: zero defects, customer orientation, the importance of human resources, among others. Here, Philip B. Crosby, Claus Moller and Tom Peters stand out.
1.3.2. Standard approach
At present, many companies manage or intend to manage their quality system based on the requirements of the international standards ISO 9000 (Gutiérrez Pulido, 1997; Beltrán Sanz, 2002a; Fernández Hatre, 2002b; Fuentes Frías, 2006a).
The International Organization for Standardization, based in Geneva, Switzerland, was born in 1947. Since then, it has adopted the word ISO as its official name.
In 1987, the ISO 9000 family of standards for quality assurance was published for the first time, consisting of the ISO 8402 standard: Vocabulary; ISO 9000: Guidelines for the selection of models for quality assurance and the three ISO 9001, 9002 and 9003 models that set out the requirements for quality systems applicable to companies whose activity was framed in certain stages of the production cycle. product life. In addition, the ISO 9004 model appeared, aimed at ensuring quality in the internal order.
In 1994, some changes were introduced that did not substantially change the original structure of the family from 1987; but in the year 2000 the last version appeared in which the process approach and the three models ISO 9001, ISO 9002 and ISO 9003 were introduced; they joined in the ISO 9001 model applicable to any organization. In addition, ISO 8402 was replaced by ISO 9000: Vocabulary and ISO 9004 became the model for performance improvement.
The other member of the ISO 9000 family, the ISO 19011 standard: QMS and environmental audits, expanded its scope and made it compatible with ISO 14000.
Since the emergence of the ISO 9000 Standard in 1987 the number of certified companies per year has increased considerably around the world.
The countries that have traditionally topped the list of certified organizations have been China, Italy, the United Kingdom, the United States, Germany and Japan. In Latin America, the leading country is Brazil, with a much higher application rate than the follower countries. Although its place in the ranking oscillates in the first ten, in Cuba there is a rise in certified companies, with a total of over 350 companies.
As has been said, standards are largely those that govern the structure of modern QMS and are oriented towards total quality. These standards have been developed based on the well-known principles of quality management, emphasizing strategic plans, customer focus, leadership, process management, documentation, monitoring and measurement, continuous improvement, human resources and material and financial resources; the first seven constituting the implementation priorities in this approach.
1.3.3. Approach to Awards and Models of Excellence
There is a large number and diversity of awards with different geographical scopes and approaches. Thus, they can be found of an international, national, regional, sectoral and even local nature. In a general sense, these awards seek to increase business performance and results through evaluation criteria.
The study involves the Ibero-American, Asia-Pacific, Mexican, Uruguayan, Colombian, Argentine, Chilean, South African, Peruvian, Cuban awards and the most renowned in the world order such as the Japanese Deming Award, the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award from the United States and the European Award of Excellence (EFQM).
However, the elements analysis / information and success in the market are isolated criteria, not because they are of low importance; but because most models include them in another more generic criterion
1.3.4. Joint analysis of the three approaches
It is convenient to make an association between the three approaches that the QMS have identified. Firstly, an association is made of the principles of quality management with the relevant elements of the standards and the criteria of the awards and models of excellence, with the aim of reducing the elements of comparison (see annex 1), remaining in the form following:
1. Leadership
2. Analysis / Information, including: fact-based decision making and monitoring and measurement
3. Results, which includes a system approach to management
4. Customer satisfaction, including customer focus
5. Processes, which includes: process approach and process management
6. People, including: staff participation and human resources
7. Strategic plans
8. Alliances and resources, which includes: mutual benefit with suppliers and material and financial resources
9. Success in the market
10. Impact
11. Documentation
12. Continual improvement, which includes continuous improvement
For the comparison of the three approaches, the criterion of high, medium and low was given according to the hierarchy of the parameter in the different approaches, resulting in:
It is concluded from this analysis that at the extreme of maximum importance are the elements: leadership, results achieved, customer satisfaction, process approach and continuous improvement; implying that they are the sustenance and the key to the success of a QMS. Second, with a high average, are: analysis and information, people and strategic plans. They rank second, with an average score, alliances and resources, impact on society and the environment and documentation; which constitute elements of support of the SGC. Finally, with a low score, there is the element of success in the market.
- The process-based approach in the organization.
The ISO 9000: 2000 Standard promotes the adoption of a process-based approach when developing, implementing and improving the effectiveness of a quality management system, to increase customer satisfaction by meeting their requirements.
For an organization to function effectively, it has to identify and manage numerous interrelated activities. An activity that uses resources, and that is managed in order to allow input elements to be transformed into results, can be considered as a process. Often the result of one process is directly the input to the next process.
The application of a system of processes within the organization, together with the identification and interactions of these processes, as well as their management, can be referred to as a “process-based approach”.
1.4. The SGCs. Methodologies for your design
As has already been determined, a QMS helps an organization to establish methodologies, responsibilities, resources, activities, etc., that allow a management oriented towards obtaining good results, or what is the same, the achievement of objectives established; oriented towards the adaptation to the use of the products it develops (Gutiérrez Pulido, 1997; ISO9000:, 2000; Beltrán Sanz, 2002a; Cuendias, 2003).
The quality approaches analyzed in the previous section promote the adoption of process-based management in the QMS as a basic principle for efficiently obtaining results related to customer satisfaction and the satisfaction of the other interested parties. A process is understood as the set of mutually related or interacting activities, which transform inputs into outputs of added value for customers (Hammer, 1994; Ballé, 1995; Benoít, 1995; Morris, 1996; Herrera M., 1997; Gutiérrez Pulido, 1997; Zaratiegui, 1999; AENOR, 2000; ISO9000:, 2000; Nascimento, 2001; Navarro, 2001; Beltrán Sanz, 2002a; Madrigal, 2002; Becker, 2003; Cuendias, 2003; León Lefcovich, 2005; Lora, 2006).
It is repeatedly cited that in order to achieve an efficient QMS it is necessary to: consider the processes in terms that add value, obtain results from the performance and efficiency of the process and continuously improve the processes based on objective measurements (AENOR, 2000; ISO9000:, 2000; ISO9001:, 2000; Beltrán Sanz, 2002a)
In Cuba, however, the design of QMS has been limited to a greater extent to the application of the basic requirements of the ISO 9001: 2000 standard, for certification purposes. Meanwhile, the search for the management of the efficiency and capacity of the processes through the measurement and evaluation of indicators has been limited, due to the low application of the guidelines of the ISO 9004: 2000 standard (Madrigal, 2001; Cuendias, 2003; Mishina, 2003; Fuentes Frías, 2006a). It is not until this coherent pair of norms is applied that a QMS is able to guide processes (Beltrán Sanz, 2002a). The implementation through criteria of awards and models of excellence is still incipient relative to the aforementioned and to the total number of companies in the country.
In the pursuit of this objective, a group of methodologies and procedures have been designed and applied that, for the purposes of this research, the proposals of (Madrigal, 2001; Fernández Hatre, 2002b; Cuendias, 2003; Mishina, 2003; Hernández Concepción, 2005; Fuentes Frías, 2006a).
First of all, it is necessary to point out that the above methodologies are specifically aimed at meeting the requirements of ISO 9001: 2000. The joint analysis of the same shows that there is a group of common characteristics, for example: diagnosis of the quality activity, identification and sequencing of processes, creation of a management group, determination of the scope and objective of the QMS, identification and study of laws and regulations of the organization, diagnosis and development of the QMS documentation, emphasize the training of personnel in quality matters, among others.
According to the above and the results that its applications have caused, it can be expressed that:
• Reference is made to defining the scope of the QMS, referring to which process or group of processes will be included. This delimitation is extremely important for the purposes of certification, but it is obviously a limitation for the achievement of an effective approach by processes and total quality in the organization (Beltrán Sanz, 2002a)
• Emphasis is placed more on documentation than on QMS results. It is recognized that documentation is decisive in the achievement of the results of the QMS but it is not the cornerstone of the same (Madrigal, 2001; Pérez Rodríguez, 2002; Beltrán Sanz, 2002a; Fernández Hatre, 2002a; Boehm, 2003; Fuentes Frías, 2006b)
• The process approach is not clearly established. Although the ISO 9001: 2000 standard establishes its requirements for the generic process model that is proposed in it, in practice the QMS is oriented more to the generic requirements of the standard than to the real processes of the organization, adding the fact that that they are not effectively managed (Beltrán Sanz, 2002a; Fuentes Frías, 2006b)
• No reference is made to the need for processes in the sense of added value. The analysis is limited to the identification of the processes, but at no time is it checked whether they are oriented to added value (Fuentes Frías, 2006b)
The foregoing explains that in Cuban practice the results in the implementation of a QMS have not been entirely favorable, demonstrated through companies that hold an ISO 9001: 2000 certificate and are not able to fully satisfy the interested parties, nor achieve incremental leaps in the quality of its products, others that simply show an inability to evolve according to customer demands.
1.5. Partial conclusions
Following the logic set out in figure 1, and after reviewing the specialized national and international bibliography, the following conclusions are reached:
1. Low orientation towards clients, high inclination towards bureaucracy, deficient strategic planning, difficulty in deploying objectives and strategies, the existence of contradictory objectives between areas that operate in the same process, poor communication between areas, existence of conflicts of competences or lack of control in the processes, the association of the design of a QMS with the ISO 9001: 2000 standard, the limited methodological treatment of the implementation of said standard and the excessive attention to the documentation of the QMS; they give evidence of the existence of the formulated scientific problem.
