Since its inception, quality has been a controversial issue, mainly due to the impossibility of defining it analytically. Linked to production and conceived as “zero defects” or “right the first time”, it led to the emergence of inspection and control departments in factories, although industrial development itself demonstrated that quality cannot be the task of only one specific area, but of the entire organization.
In services, however, quality means more than mere compliance with standards, as this is easily achieved if the parties involved are committed to the activity they perform. Quality means making a difference, penetrating the perception of each client about the service received, guaranteeing high levels of satisfaction and return.
The fact that quality is a difficult construct to define and given the intangible nature of the services, makes the measurement process extremely complex. The dynamics of the current world requires new paradigms that place the client, the raison d'être of any service company, at the center of their efforts. Knowing what consumers think about the benefit is vital to satisfy them, achieve high levels of income and stay in the market. The measurement of quality, therefore, is revealed as a need associated with the very concept of management, since everything that is not expressed in figures, cannot be managed and improved.In many service companies there is a lack of a scientifically argued tool that allows to diagnose and evaluate the quality of the service in a reliable way. Therefore, the objective of this research is to elaborate the theoretical framework that supports the application of a quality management model in said type of companies.
CONCEPTS RELATED TO THE MANAGEMENT OF THE QUALITY IN THE SERVICES.
1 General considerations about the services.
In their buying behavior, the consumer is motivated by the search for gratifying experiences and satisfactions, however, what really moves him is not only the tangible good, but the service that the good is capable of providing.
Considered the present time as the Age of Service (Albrecht, 1990), this is highlighted as a clearly differentiated activity, which cannot be seen as a simple service, but rather an art, a culture. This leads to a new philosophy, a paradigm where the customer is the center of the organization.
The great difference between the manufacture of a service (servuction) and a product is that in the former, the client is a fundamental member of the system: he is both a producer and a consumer.
In these times power has shifted from supply to demand, turning the increasingly demanding customer into the raison d'être of any company.
1.1 Conceptualization of the term service.
The term service has evolved since its inception, determined by the inevitable revolution in the tertiary sector. Fuch (1968) states that "the service is the act by which value is added to the product… something intangible, which has a direct application on the client and closely relates the producer to the consumer." At this stage, the service still exists formally and truly attached to the product, with the function of relating the producer with the consumer, quite the opposite of what happens when the service acquires its own personality: the product is subordinated to it.
In this way, in the 1980s, conceptual definitions reflect a certain autonomy, evidenced in Lehtinen's (1983) proposal: “Services are activities of an intangible nature in which a provider and a client participate, generating satisfaction for the latter. ". The term "activities" is introduced to formulate the concept, giving the idea of a process, which implies a relationship between at least two elements. Norman (1984), clarifies that “the service is formed by acts and interactions, which are social contacts. The service is more than just something intangible, it is a social interaction between the producer and the customer ”.
In ISO Standards The service is defined as the "Result generated by activities in the interface between the supplier and the client and by internal activities of the supplier, in order to respond to the client's needs".When speaking of services, the concept expresses a particularity of the process where activity and result coincide in time and space. What is produced is at the same time what is consumed. The service production process is, at the same time, the service consumption process. According to Kottler (1988)“A service is any activity or benefit that one party offers to another, essentially intangible and does not culminate in ownership of the thing. Its production is not necessarily linked to a physical product. "
Schroeder (1992) expresses it in the following way: “… the service is something that is produced and consumed simultaneously. A service, therefore, never exists, you can only observe the result after the fact ". This is the essential difference between the process of production and consumption of the service and other processes. While in the latter, as a rule, the production time and the consumption time are perfectly distinguishable, in the service the consumption time and the production time occur simultaneously.
Although the concept is linked to a large number of definitions, the analysis by means of the Matrix of Concepts presented in Annex No.1 allows to elucidate that the service is the activity of a fundamentally intangible nature in which a supplier-consumer relationship is established, with the aim of satisfying the needs of the latter.
1.2 Characteristics of the services.
The services are basically characterized by their intangibility, since they cannot be perceived by the senses before acquiring them. They are lent and consumed at the same time that they are created, in the so-called Moments of Truth or decisive that according to (Albrecht, 1990)They are the “episodes in which the client comes into contact with any aspect of the organization and has an impression of the quality of the service. The moment of truth expresses, as can be seen from its definition, the relationship that exists between supplier and customer at the points of contact ”.
Those that have a decisive impact on customer perceptions are the so-called Critical Moments of Truth. They are closely related to the Customer Priority System, based on the concepts of importance, utility, preference and choice, as well as the corresponding determination methodologies.
These "precious moments" in which the capacity of each service entity to satisfy its customers is put to the test largely determine the results that will be obtained in the short, medium and long term; based on a consumer orientation. To say of Carlzon (1989), "The best approach to consistently generate high-quality moments of truth lies in building a customer-focused company."
The services are a result of the simultaneous interaction between provider and client, of fluid, present, living work and the input element, which becomes the output object, is the human.
They are not physical objects, although they can be associated with them. Its greater or lesser specific weight will always depend on the type of service in question. They are inseparable from their source, be it a person or a machine, they are not countable or inventoried, unlike products that once finished enter a storage, transportation and sale process. They are not measured in physical terms and therefore cannot be verified before being sold.
Their heterogeneity is due to the impossibility of generalizing them and the fact that they are subject to high variability and are subject to a high direct or indirect dependence on the human factor.
Buyers of services acquire a right, (to receive a benefit), use, access or lease of something, but not the ownership of it. After the benefit, they only exist as lived experiences.
1.3 The services triangle.
In the services triangle, shown in Figure No. 1, the angles represent the key factors to achieve excellent performance. The strategy is related to the vision that the organization has for the service, taking into account the development of the client's priorities, in connection with the contact personnel and the system used.
Its fundamental objective is customer satisfaction, which will be reflected mostly in their intentions to buy again. The employees of the organization are the main actors and executors of this activity and it depends on them that the strategy defined by the management is fulfilled.
The system must be designed with the interests of consumers in mind. The elements, incomprehensible formats or that require very complex procedures, threaten a good service.
Figure No.1. Triangle of Services.
Source: Albrecht (1990).
1.4 The Service Cycle Model.
The service cycle is the continuous series of events that a customer experiences during the provision of the service. The technical approach given by the companies and the approach to the client and the staff to collaborate with them is related in the model, so that it is possible to solve the existing contradiction.
It should be noted that the consumer can perceive the whole picture, the organization as a whole, despite the fact that the Moments of Truth are diverse in their impact. The Model allows us to see things as the client sees them (empathy), an element of vital importance in achieving the objectives of the companies.
1.5 Restoration Service.
Restaurants are all establishments, whatever their denomination, that serve the public, at a price, meals and drinks to be consumed in the same place.
Its history begins in 1700 BC, when taverns existed; There has even been evidence of the existence of a public dining room in Egypt, in 512 BC with a menu that only served dishes prepared with cereals, wild birds and onions.
The Romans are considered one of the cultures with the greatest tendencies to develop the custom of visiting bars and canteens. In the city of Herculaneum, near Naples, there were many bars that served bread, cheese, wine, nuts, dates, figs and hot meals.
The commercial restaurant business prospered after World War II, as many wealthy individuals developed the tendency to "eat out."
The first proper restaurant emerged in 1765, on Poulies street in Paris, and had an inscription in Latin that, translated into Spanish, said: "Come to me all those whose stomachs cry out in anguish, and I will restore them." The owner was Monsieur Boulanger.
The word "restaurant" was quickly established and the most reputable chefs who until then had only worked for private families, also opened their own businesses or were hired by a new group of entrepreneurs: restaurateurs.
Currently, as there is a restaurant proposal that sometimes exceeds demand, customers can choose from an extensive and varied offer. This reality forces restaurateurs to have to improve a lot in the aspects that customers expect to find, in order to retain them and promote their service to other customers. In this sense, some requirements must be taken into account:
- Varied offer, agility, quality and content. Compatibility between price and offer. Special menus for illness, diet or other causes. Personalized treatment for repeat customers. Accessibility and appropriate schedules. Minimize waiting. Safety. Friendliness. Surprise with a variety of dishes, services or theme nights. Location and appropriate setting. Reflect recognitions or awards obtained to consolidate prestige.
The restaurants are classified according to numerous criteria such as the type of service, the price of the menu, the category, among others.
2 General aspects of Quality.
Quality has been a controversial issue since its inception due to the wide variety of criteria that exist in this regard. Each company defines what the term means, based on its way of doing things, whether by tradition or predetermined standards. However, current conditions and the way the market moves make it essential that organizations have a well-established understanding of what they understand by “Quality” and how they manage it..
2.1 Definition of the Quality concept.
Quality is a primary concept that does not accept reasoned enunciation. Defines objects but cannot be defined.
According to Gronroos, C.(1994) "quality is an undefined concept". It forms a strong subjective component although some point out that it also has an objective component and emphasize its difference (Garvin, 1987; Dodds and Monroe, 1985; Holbrook and Corfman 1985; Jacoby and Olson, 1985).
The concept of quality comes from the Latin Qualitas and is associated with the attribute or property that distinguishes people, goods or services.
Its enunciation oscillates between two fundamental guidelines, quality in the sphere of industry and in that of services.
2.1.1 The concept of quality in the industry.
In Table No.1 some of the most important definitions in the industry sector are discussed.
Table No.1 Definition of quality in the industry.
| Not. | Author | Definition |
| one | ASFQC | Suitability for use, meeting customer needs. Fitness for use. Set of characteristics of a product that meets the needs of customers. Have no deficiencies. |
| two | JMJuran | In evaluating service quality, consumers compare the service they expect with the perceptions of the service they receive. |
| 3 | E. Deming | Predictable degree of uniformity and reliability at low cost, suited to market needs. |
| 4 | P. Crosby | Meet the requirements (specifications). |
| 5 | Feigenbaum | Total composition of the characteristics of the product and the service in the areas of marketing, engineering, manufacturing and maintenance, through which the product and service in use will meet customer expectations. |
| 6 | K. Ishikawa | Features that meet consumer requirements. |
| 7 | Schroeder | Set of characteristics of an entity, activity, process and organization or any combination of them that gives it the ability to satisfy established and implicit needs in accordance with its intended use or application. |
| 8 | I. Taguchi | Minimum losses for society. |
| 9 | P. Drucker | Quality is what the customer is willing to pay based on what they get and value. |
| 10 | Harrinton | Measure of how the level of provision meets or meets customer expectations. |
| eleven | Garvin | Satisfy aspirations. Degree to which a specific product satisfies. It depends on how well the product conforms to consumer preferences. |
| 12 | I. Glez Plana | Quality for SIME is what the customer wants, that is, the quality of our products is no longer simply good or bad, it becomes what the customer and the market consider. Quality is defined and rated by the customer. |
| 13 | A. González | Quality is exceeding the expectations of my clients. |
Source: Frías, R., et al. (2007)
It should be noted that many of these definitions largely coincide with those approached from the point of view of services.
The analysis using a Frequency Distribution Table (See Annex No.2) allows obtaining the elements that are repeated the most. In this way, the term "characteristics" is one of the most used, evidencing the thesis that quality defines objects.
Quality as the basis for "customer satisfaction" or a measure of it is a common attribute in the previous statements. The "compliance with the requirements" is appreciated by authors such as Crosby, Ishikawa and Garvin and refers to the ability to meet the requirements and demands of both end customers and manufacturing standards. The "suitability for use" is another important factor in the definition, as an expression of the usefulness of the product in question for each one.
In some cases, the idea that quality is "reaching expectations" is exposed (Feigenbaum and Harrinton), while in others there is talk of exceeding them (A. González).
The criteria based on the perception and valuation of the client are more daring and are closely related to the concepts of the service sphere.
The ISO 9000: 2000 Standard defines the term quality as "degree to which the set of inherent characteristics meets the requirements". The "conformance to requirements" leads to the argument that "quality costs less", which is true in certain cases. On the contrary, "the degree of excellence" implies that "quality costs more", which is also the case. In order to avoid this confusion in the meaning of the term quality, the term grade can be used to describe the level of excellence. The term degree is used in a descriptive sense of technical excellence. The grade reflects a planned or recognized difference in requirements for quality.
When referring to quality, it is essential to specify the requirements for it, which must be understood as the expression of needs or their translation into a set of specifications, established in quantitative or qualitative terms, for the characteristics of an entity, with in order to allow its completion and examination.
2.1.2 The concept of quality in services.
The evolution that the tertiary sector has undergone has also been evidenced in aspects related to its quality.
As services are the field where this research moves, its analysis is emphasized.
Next, reference is made to the most significant elements in terms of the definition of the concept in this area, in Table No.2.
Table No.2. Definition of quality in services.
| Not. | Author | Definition |
| one | Oliver (1977, 1980, 1981, 1985, 1988, 1989) | The quality of the service can be considered as an attitude. |
| two | Gronroos (1982, 1984) | In evaluating service quality, consumers compare the service they expect with the perceptions of the service they receive. |
| 3 | Lewis and Booms (1983) | The quality of service is a measure of how the level of service developed matches customer expectations on a consistent basis. |
| 4 | Holbrook and Corfman and Olshavsky (1985) | Mode of evaluation or judgment of a product or service similar in many cases to an attitude. |
| 5 | Holbrook and Corfman (1985) | Subjective response of people to objects and, furthermore, it is a highly relative phenomenon that differs between different valuations. |
| 6 | Zeithaml (1988) | The perceived quality of the service is defined as: the assessment that the consumer makes of the excellence or superiority of the service. It is a modality of attitude, related to, but not equivalent to satisfaction, which results from the comparison between expectations and perceptions of service performance. All quality is perceived by someone. |
| 7 | Parasuraman, Zeithaml and Berry (1988) | It is a modality of attitude, related to, but not equivalent to satisfaction, which results from the comparison between expectations and perceptions of service performance. |
| 8 | Bitner (1990) | The perceived quality of service is a form of attitude, a global evaluation. |
| 9 | Bolton and Drew (1991) | A form of attitude, which results from the comparison of expectations with performance. |
| 10 | Horovitz (1993) | Level of excellence that the company has chosen to achieve to satisfy its key clientele. |
| eleven | Cronin and Taylor (1992) | The quality of the service is what the client perceives of the level of performance of the service provided. |
Source: Frías, R., et al. (2007)
The analysis of the concepts using a Frequency Distribution Table (See Annex No.3) makes it possible to obtain the elements that are presented with greater repetition.
In the concepts stated, the correlation between the objective and the subjective can be observed. The treatment of quality as “perceived” highlights in one way or another the fact that it is a function of consumer perception. Experience shows that consumers perceive quality in a much broader way than companies; hence there is an urgent need for it to be defined in the same way that customers do. Perceived Quality is the consumer's judgment on the excellence or superiority of an entity as a whole, it is a form of attitude, similar to but not equivalent to satisfaction. Furthermore, quality is not always perceived in the same way. Each person determines at each moment what is their necessary quality. This is the great challenge,match the best attributes at the moment that customers demand products and services, where they are, to meet the needs at those times and circumstances.
Perception is the way in which each client collects, processes and interprets the information that comes from the environment, it is a subjective representation of the real world.
Quality as "attitude" is defended by many of the authors studied. It is expressed as a mode of evaluation or judgment and is a highly relative phenomenon that differs between the different evaluations.
The quality of service and customer satisfaction are concepts that are closely related since a higher quality of service will lead to increased consumer satisfaction, that is, the former should be treated as a precedent of satisfaction.
The analysis shows two fundamental approaches (around which two schools have been formed, the Nordic and the North American) that are the most significant in the treatment of service quality and the management models derived from them. The first approach defines service quality as perceived quality, the result of the comparison or difference between expectations and perceptions, while the second defines quality as perceived, but the result of the perception of the performance of the service provided.
2.2 The evolution of Quality.
Since its inception, quality has evolved according to the different stages that socioeconomic development has gone through. Until 1900 artisans abounded, who had a direct relationship with their customers, knew first-hand both their wishes and complaints. There was no quality system since the artisan carried out all the phases of the product, from the purchase of raw materials to the sale of the finished product.
As of industrialization and division of labor, industrial production increased, work diversified and the producer-client relationship was definitively broken. Around 1920 there is a separation between production and inspection. Theories about job specialization are mainly due to the engineer FWTaylor.
The increase in production brought with it the need for inspection using statistical techniques.
In 1946 the American Society of Quality Control was founded. The most significant exponents in the field of statistics were WE Deming and Joseph M. Juran.
At the beginning of the 60s, the idea of comprehensive quality was introduced, that is, quality is not only a problem for inspectors, but all departments must be concerned with achieving the required standards. The validity of the inspection as it was understood until then is questioned. In this regard, Philip B. Crosby stands out, known above all for promoting the culture of zero defects, which manages to greatly reduce inspection activities; Genichi Taguchi, who owes his fame to Taguchi's loss function and for his contributions to the design of experiments; Armand V. Feigenbaum, who introduced the idea that quality was not just a problem for the production department but for the entire organization and Kaoru Ishikawa,accredited for its collection of Q7 quality tools and especially for developing one of them: the Fishbone Diagram.
Since about 1980 the concept of total quality or total quality management is introduced: business administration theory focused on the permanent satisfaction of customer expectations. It is intended that quality is not the responsibility of a specific department of the company, but transfer this commitment to all members of the organization under the idea that only if they strive to achieve it, will it really be achieved. In addition, we are no longer talking only about the quality of the product or service, but one more step is being advanced and we are also beginning to talk about the quality of the processes and systems. In other words, it is finally recognized that in order to achieve a quality final product or service, the processes and systems used must also be so.
2.3 Quality Management.
The concept of "management" contains a series of elements that allow a definition of it, associated with the term quality.
ISO 9000: 2000 presents management as the "coordinated activities to direct and control the organization".
From here are derived the functions of management that according to Fayol (1916) they are planning, organization, command, coordination and control.
Currently and according to Robbins (2000) they have been abbreviated into four: Planning, Organization, Direction (coordination and command group) and Control.
There are other very important elements associated with the concept of quality and which are essential to obtain the desired result. Among these can be mentioned the inspection, control, assurance, management and total quality management. There has been some confusion regarding the meaning of these terms; However, in simple words, quality control refers to the operational means used to satisfy quality requirements, while assurance aims to give confidence in such compliance, both internally for the organization itself and externally for customers and clients. authorities and consists of a set of planned and systematic activities, applied within the framework of the quality system,that have been shown to be necessary to provide adequate confidence that an entity will meet the requirements for quality.
Quality management is a sufficient guarantee that the services, works and products provided meet the quality requirements, previously established and agreed with the client, within the agreed period and with the lowest production cost that offers an attractive price and making a profit for the company.
The new demands associated with quality management require changes in the mentality and organizational culture of companies, as well as the adaptation of the structures and operation of the entities.
Due to the above, the concept of quality is broader, establishing quality management for all activities.
Conceptually, quality management is the set of activities of the general management function that determine the quality policy, objectives and responsibilities and is carried out, as mentioned, by means such as planning, inspection, control, assurance and improvement, within the framework of the quality system.
Quality management is the responsibility of all levels, but must be conducted by the highest level of management. Its implementation involves all members of the organization and takes into account the economic aspects. As a distinctive sign, it must guarantee the active and conscious participation of all staff.
Total quality management contributes to these concepts a long-term global management strategy, as well as the participation of all members of the organization for the benefit of the structure itself, its clients and society as a whole.
3 Models of Quality Management.
The need to serve an increasingly demanding and segmented market, increase the level of quality of service perceived by visitors and diversify the tourist offer leads to a priority line of action. To achieve this goal it is first necessary to be able to correctly measure the level of quality of service provided by each organization, since according to Kaplan and Norton (1992) "what is not measured is not managed".
Quality is an indefinable concept, which makes the measurement process extremely complex, and services are essentially intangible, which means designing procedures that make this property tangible.
Both academic research and business practice have been suggesting, for some time now, that a high level of quality of service provides companies with considerable benefits in terms of market share, productivity, costs, staff motivation, differentiation with respect to the competition, loyalty and attracting new customers, to name a few of the most important. As a result of this evidence, service quality management has become a priority strategy and more and more people are trying to define it, measure it and, finally, improve it.
Unfortunately, the definition and measurement of quality have turned out to be particularly complex in the field of services, since, to the fact that quality is a still undefined concept, we must add the difficulty derived from the intangible nature of services (Gronroos, 1994).
Still, quality has become a key element in the tertiary sector. The effort to achieve it has led numerous researchers to develop possible definitions and design models of it. The Quality Management Models are the set of schematically interrelated elements that serve as a guide for companies to design and implement their Quality Management Systems.
The diagram presented in Annex No.4 shows the main exponents of this topic.
4 Models of Quality Management in Services.
It is the purpose of this research to deepen the contents regarding management models in the sphere of services. As mentioned in previous sections, the issue has been studied by two fundamental schools, the Nordic and the North American, who have developed various models based on two paradigms: that of disagreement and that of performance.
The Nordic school distinguishes three basic dimensions of quality: technical, functional and image. Of the three elements of this theoretical model, only the image has external features, it is projected outwards; but from within the organization. Both the “what” (technical quality) and the “how” (functional quality) constitute internal elements. It is necessary to emphasize the importance attributed to the human factor.
The North American school considers the client as the only judge of quality; stating that the perceived quality is the judgment that the client makes about the superiority or global excellence of the product, considered an attitude, related but not equivalent to satisfaction and that is described as the degree and direction of the discrepancies between the perceptions and the consumer expectations. On the other hand, some authors defend quality as an attitudinal phenomenon that should be measured solely based on performance, result or perception and in which expectations should not be taken into account.
Table No.3 expresses in a synthesized way what was expressed.
Table No.3. Quality schools in services.
| Esc. | Paradigm | Representatives | Emphasis | Model | |
| Nordic | Disagreement | a) Gummerson (1978)
b) Lehtinen and Lehtinen Jr. (1982, 1991) c) Gronroos (1978-1994) |
a) Image
b) Technical quality and functional quality. c) Human factor |
Servman | |
| North American | Disagreement | Parasuraman,
Zeithaml, Berry |
1988-1994 | a) Measurement scale.
b) Difference between E and P. |
Servqual. |
| Theas, L. | 1990-1994 | Ideal Point | Edes | ||
| Perception | a) Cronin and Taylor
b) Guetty and Thompson |
1990-1994 | Perceptions | Attitudinal Servperf
Lodgqual Hotelqual |
Source: Frías, R., et al. (2007)
4.1 Models based on the Paradigm of Discrepancies.
The paradigm of discrepancies focuses its criteria fundamentally on the measurement of quality as a result of the difference between Perceptions and Expectations.
4.1.1 SERVMAN model. (Gronroos, 1978-1979, 1981-1984, 1987-1988, 1990, 1994; Lehtinen, 1982, 1991; Gummerson, 1978).
It conceives quality as perceived and presents as a peculiarity the attempt to establish causal links between internal and external gaps. Its focus on processes distinguishes it from other models in this paradigm. It includes two variables that are taken up by the Utility Service Chain Model, staff motivation and the creation of adequate conditions. SERVMAN focuses its attention on people, the creation of suitable conditions, motivation and highlights the managerial role in their development. For this reason it has been connoted as a model of humanistic tendency.
4.1.2 Image Model. (Gronroos, 1984).
He focuses his interest on how the expectations-perceptions discrepancy is derived from the image, built from the distinction that the author makes between technical quality and functional quality, as well as from marketing actions, fundamentally through the integral elements of the process of the external communication. An important detail is to consider imaging as an element that generates expectations.
4.1.3 SERVQUAL model. (Parasuraman, Zeithaml, Berry, 1985).
It is a powerful research technique that allows measurements of the quality level of any service company, to know what expectations customers have and how they appreciate the service; globally diagnoses the service process under study. It is the most popular model in the 1980s and during the first half of the 1990s. Its authors have created the theory of gaps, which are the essence of the model. The causes of each of the 4 gaps that intervene as independent variables are studied, since the fifth is established as a function of the previous ones.
The model has been the subject of many criticisms, including problems of a conceptual and methodological nature, the number of dimensions that are common to any type of service, and the non-consideration and integration of important information in the calculation of quality values..
4.1.4 Evaluated Performance Model. (Theas, L. 1990-1994).
It is based on the theory of classic ideal point attitudinal models. Instead of using expectations as the standard of comparison, a classic sweet spot and a feasible sweet spot are used. Perceived quality is conceived as the difference between the perceived performance of the service provided and the ideal point. It is one of the least worked models in the literature and in its practical applications, although it resolves the discussion about expectations from an economic approach.
4.1.5 Multi- Scenario Model. (Bolton and Drew, 1991).
It is based on the customer's assessment of the quality of the service and the Value. It introduces new elements such as the concepts of value of the service, behavior and intentions of the customer, to recommend the service to others or to repeat the purchase. It reflects the idea of articulating quality, value of the service, satisfaction and behavioral variables, giving the idea of the chain. It places the management of service quality entirely in the field of Economics, with which it is possible not only to study the system of relationships that such a concept presupposes, but also to establish strategies for its subsequent quantification.
4.1.6 Model of the Background and Consequences of Satisfaction. (Anderson and Sullivan, 1993).
It starts from the hypothesis that satisfaction is a function of perceived performance and dissatisfaction. The model dichotomizes dissatisfaction into two components, one positive and the other negative, which exert separate effects on satisfaction. They propose that the ease in evaluating performance can be an important moderator in the level of influence of disagreement. If a service is difficult to judge (high ambiguity), the possible “acceptance margin” increases and non-conformity is less likely to occur, and conversely, if the quality is easy to judge (low ambiguity), the acceptance margin will decrease and the disagreement will be more likely to occur. Finally, satisfaction is expected to have a positive impact on future purchase intentions.
4.1.7 Zeithaml model. (1988).
It expresses the relationship between price, value and quality of service. Divide attributes into intrinsic and extrinsic variables. The intrinsic variables are related to the physical composition of the product; they cannot be changed without altering the nature of the product itself. Extrinsic variables, although they are related to the product, are not part of it, as happens with advertising, brand and price.
4.2 Models based on the Perception of Performance Paradigm.
These models only consider the customer's perception values about the performance of the service provided as an input variable and emerge as an alternative to models based on the non-conformity paradigm, in particular the SERVQUAL Model. They have received little criticism in the service literature and have always been used to demonstrate their superiority in validity and reliability over the previous ones.
4.2.1 LODGQUAL Model. (Guetty and Thompson, 1994).
It links the quality of the service with the satisfaction of the external client and the intentions to recommend the service to others and defines it as the perception of the performance of the service provided. It was empirically validated in accommodation services and hence its name LODGING + QUAL, that is, quality of accommodation. Later it served as inspiration for the design of the HOTELQUAL or quality hotel model. The most significant thing to highlight in its conception is the fact that it simplifies the five dimensions proposed by SERVQUAL to three.
4.2.2 Servuction Model.
It carries out a systematic and coherent organization of the physical and human elements of the customer-supplier relationship, which is necessary for the provision of a service and whose characteristics and quality levels have been predetermined
4.2.3 Hierarchical Structure Model. (Frías, R., et al. 2005).
It is based on the Multi-criteria or Multi-attribute Decisional Paradigm and assumes as mathematical models for the development of the measurement strategy the Hierarchical Analytical Process Model, created by Thomas Saaty, and the Fishbein Model, as a model of attitudes created in the decade of the 1960s. The concept of "product" is assumed as a set of attributes or characteristics, understood as the advantage sought by the customer in the service they consume, that is, utility as the basis of the concept of perceived value.
4.2.4 EVALPROC model.
It is a model for the measurement and evaluation of the quality of the service constituted in its semantic formulation by two key words: Evaluation + Process, thereby indicating that the essential approach of the same is supported by the system theory to which the Consideration of the process approach. This last consideration distinguishes it from the rest of the known quality assessment methods. It considers inputs and outputs and incorporates the process as such and establishes the concept of "chain" and cause-effect relationships, considering outputs as a function of the process, the latter as a function of the structure and the latter as a function of the inputs, without rule out the existence of relationships between each element and the outputs.
4.2.5 SERVPERF model.
The model was born as a result of the investigations carried out by Cronin and Taylor (1992, 1994) in 8 service companies. J. Joseph Cronin, at the time of publication, was serving as Associate Professor of Marketing at Florida State University, while Steven A. Taylor was serving as Assistant Professor of Marketing. The study was developed precisely at the time when the latter was a PhD candidate at this very University. In his opinion, the literature reviewed suggests that the operationalization of the service quality concept is confused with the concept of satisfaction and attitude. The proposal was to validate an alternative method to evaluate the perceived quality of the service and the significance of the relationships between service quality, customer satisfaction and intentions to buy again.
Based on a series of questionnaires, they contrasted the quality measurement carried out through the discrepancy between expectations and consumer perceptions and that carried out only with their perceptions or attitudes. The 22 items proposed by SERVQUAL were used, suggesting on the one hand to apply SERVQUAL and on the other to measure quality only with the perceptions test proposed by this model. Discussed in the literature review and according to the tests practiced by Cronin and Taylor, the SERVPERF scale seems to more closely shape the implications on attitudes and satisfaction. The marketing literature offers considerable support for the superiority of the measure of service quality based simply on performance (Bolton, Ruth N., and James H. Drew (1991ª),"A Longitudinal Analysis of The Impact of Service Changes on Customer Attitudes", Journal of Marketing, 55 (January), 1-9, (1991b) “A Multistage Model of Customer Assessment of Service Quality and Value”, Journal Consumer Research, 17 (March), 375-384; Churchill, Gilbert A., Jr., and Carol Suprenant (1982), "An Investigation Into The Determinants of Customer Satisfaction", Journal of Marketing Research, 19 (November), 491-504; Mazis, Michael B., Olli T. Ahtola, and R. Eugene Klippel (1975), "Comparison of Four Multi Attribute Models in The Prediction of Consumer Attitudes", Journal of Consumer Research, 2 (June), 38-52; Woodruff, Robert B., Ernest R. Cadotte, and Rogger L. Jenkins (1983), "Modeling Consumer Satisfaction Processes Using Experience-Based Norms," Journal of Marketing Research, 20 (August), 296-304.
In this way, it is stated that SERVPERF will have a better acceptance because the measurement exclusively of the perception of performance more accurately reflects the reality of the service provided.
As a result they obtained that:
- Quality of service is an antecedent of customer satisfaction. Customer satisfaction has a significant effect on customer purchase intention. Quality of service has less effect on purchase intention than customer satisfaction.
They deduce that the SERVQUAL model by Zeithaml, Parasuraman and Berry (1988) is not the most appropriate to measure the quality of service due to the deficiencies analyzed.
Expectations are the component of the SERVQUAL instrument that has caused the most controversies due to the interpretation problems posed to the respondents, they represent a redundancy within the measurement instrument since perceptions are influenced by expectations and by their variability at different times of the provision of the service.
The main conclusion to which Cronin and Taylor concur is that current conceptualizations and measurements of service quality are based on a flawed paradigm, suggesting that it should be measured through attitudes. The structural analysis supports the theoretical superiority of the proposed model. Finally, they suggest that the points of the service quality measurement scales should be different from one industry to another.
Assuming that service quality and satisfaction are different constructs, the most common acceptance of the differences between the two elements is that perceived service quality is a form of attitude, a global evaluation, while satisfaction is the measure of a specific transaction.
The treatment of expectations as "expected" is based on consumer experiences with a specific type of service organization.
Hence, Cronin and Taylor claim that the service literature has confused the relationship between consumer satisfaction and service quality. This distinction is important for both service managers and researchers because borrowers need to know whether what is expected by consumers corresponds or not to the level of provision, or whether or not they are satisfied with the maximum perceived quality. The importance of this result has been a serious effort to clarify the relationship between satisfaction and quality of service.
However, it should be noted that the relationship between service quality, customer satisfaction and purchase intentions is still unexplored.
Figure No.2 collects the fundamental differences between the paradigms that support both models.
Figure No.2. Paradigms that support Quality Management in Services.
Source: Frías, R., et al. (2007)
4.2.5.1 Dimensions of service quality.
The measurement of the quality of the service must be carried out through the attributes in which the clients look to judge it. The literature refers to these attributes with the term of dimensions.
With the study of dimensionality, companies have relevant information that indicates in which aspects they should focus their efforts so that they are truly appreciated, achieving high rates of return on investments.
SERVPERF uses the five dimensions proposed by SERVQUAL: Tangible Elements, Reliability, Responsiveness, Security and Empathy for its application, which will be explored in the next chapter.
4.2.5.2 Loyalty.
Traditionally, loyalty has been considered from a conative point of view, that is, from a repeated purchase behavior by the customer. However, "if customer loyalty is marked only by this conative dimension, it is not possible to distinguish between true loyalty and spurious loyalty" (Dick and Basu 1994).
The mere repetition of purchase does not indicate true loyalty, since a customer can maintain their relationship with a supplier because there are no other alternatives, the change costs are high, among other causes. Thus, Day (1969)states that "loyalty is more than just the consistent purchase of the same brand." Consequently, Dick and Basu (1994)propose that fidelity should be analyzed by looking at these two dimensions at the same time. That is, from an attitudinal point of view, loyalty is seen as a positive attitude towards the organization that is generated through an internal evaluation process.
Taking into account that customer loyalty can be analyzed from these perspectives, a very accurate definition is the one proposed by Gremler and Brown (1996): "Service loyalty is the degree to which a customer exhibits repeated buying behavior towards a service provider, has a positive attitude towards the provider, and considers the use of only this provider when they need this service".
4.2.5.3 Determinants of behavioral intentions.
Studies of the determinants of customer loyalty present three clearly differentiated situations. Some research shows that the purchase intention is given by the quality of the service (Llorens, 1996). Boulding, et al, (1993) state that quality has a direct influence on two behavioral intentions: the repurchase purpose and the willingness to recommend the supplier.
Other authors propose that the quality of service and satisfaction cause a joint but independent effect on loyalty. (Mc Alexander, Kaldenberb and Koening, 1994 and Sellers, Azorín y Más, 1999). In the works of Bloemer, Ruyter and Peeters (1998) and Berné, Múgica and Yagüe (1996) The influence of these two variables on loyalty is also exposed.
On the other hand, there are studies that show that in the relationship between quality of service and loyalty, customer satisfaction acts as a mediating variable. Dabholkar, Shepherd and Thorpe (2000) They also show this mediating effect of satisfaction between the quality of service and two behavioral intentions: the intention to use the service in the future and the intention to recommend the service to other people.
In the investigations carried out by Cronin and Taylor (1992) and Anderson and Sullivan (1993) It is shown that the quality of the service exerts a positive influence on satisfaction, which in turn determines the repurchase intention.
CONCLUSIONS
- The theoretical-referential framework that supports the application of the SERVPERF Methodology was elaborated, based on a deep bibliographic review, articulating the Management, Quality, Services and the terms derived from them, thus showing that there is diversity criteria in the literature on the subject, determined by two main schools that define quality as perceived.
Albrecht, Karl (1990). The Revolution of Services. Editorial Serie Empresarial.
Referenced by Frías, R., et al. (2007). Quality management. University of Matanzas Camilo Cienfuegos. Center for Tourism Studies. Electronic text. Page 17.
Lehtinen, J. (1983). Customer-oriented services company. Espoo, Finland. This idea appears in 1981 and is given by America Marketing Association.
Referenced by Frías, R., et al. (2007). Op. Cit. Page 17.
The International Organization for Standardization originates from the International Federation of National Associations for Standardization (1926-1939). In October 1946, in London, representatives of twenty-five countries decided to adopt the name of the International Organization for Standardization known as ISO for its acronym and for the reference to the Greek word for equality. The first meeting was held in June 1947 in Zurich, Germany, and the city of Geneva, Switzerland is established as the headquarters for its operation. Its main purpose is to promote the development of international standards and related activities including the conformity of the statutes to facilitate the exchange of goods and services throughout the world.
ISO 9000: 2000 standard. Quality Management Systems. Foundations and Vocabulary.
Kotler, P. (1988). Marketing Management. 6th. Edition. Englenvoo Cliffs, NJ Prentice - Hall.
Schroeder, RG (1992). Operative administration. 3rd. Edition. Edited by McGraw - Hill Interamericana de México.
Albrecht, Karl (1990). Op. Cit.
Referenced by Frías, R., et al. (2007). Op. Cit. Page 12.
In later sections, reference is made to the term Quality Management.
Gronroos, C. (1994). Marketing and service management. Management of the Moments of Truth and Competition in Services. Editorial Díaz de Santos. Madrid.
Referenced by Frías, R., et al. (2007). Op. Cit. Page 28.
Taken from Frías, R., et al. (2007). Op. Cit. Page 29.
ISO 9000: 2000 standard. Quality Management Systems. Foundations and Vocabulary.
Referenced by Frías, R., et al. (2007). Op. Cit. Page 32.
Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915). Creator of Taylorism, based on the principle of 'scientific administration', rationalization of production processes by differentiating the tasks of creation and execution, or what is the same, by dividing the organization of production (managers, engineers, among others) of mechanical tasks.
W. Edwards Deming: Your contributions focus on the field of statistics in quality control and improvement. His ideas were ignored in the US (his country of origin), however in 1950 he was invited to give a round of lectures in Japan and achieved such success that he stayed in this country imparting his ideas. He is known for establishing "the 14 points for management" and "the Deming cycle or PDCA." In Japan, the quality award is named in his honor "Deming Award"
Joseph M. Juran: Like Deming, his ideas were not recognized until they reached Japan. His most outstanding contribution is "the Juran trilogy: Planning, Control and Quality Improvement". The most important thing is that he is recognized as the one who emphasized the human aspect in the field of quality. This is where the statistical origins of total quality emerge.
ISO 9000: 2000 standard. Quality Management Systems. Foundations and Vocabulary.
Management: Term translated from English as executive function, management or administration carried out by managers. A manager is a facilitator or leader who integrates the activities of a work team.
Referenced by Frías, R., et al. (2007). Op. Cit. Page 41.
Robbins, S. (2000). Managing Today. Prentice Hall.
Kaplan, R. and Norton, D. (1992). «The Balanced Scorecard. Measures That Drive Performance ». Harvard Business Review, January-February; (1993). Putting the Balance Scorecard to Work, in Harvard Business Review, September-October; (nineteen ninety six). Using the Balanced Scorecard as a Strategic Management System in the Harvard Business Review, January-February.
Gronroos, C. (1994). Marketing and service management. Management of Moments of Truth and Competition in Services, Editorial Díaz de Santos, Madrid.
Taken from Frías R., et al. (2007). Op. Cit. Page 33.
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McAlexander, J., Kaldenburg D. and Koenig, H. (1994): "Service quality measurement". Journal of Health Care Marketing, vol.14, num. 3.
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