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Motivation, concept and main theories

Table of contents:

Anonim

Motivation is one of the psychological aspects that is most closely related to the development of the human being. Motivation is not characterized as a personal trait, but by the interaction of people with the situation, therefore motivation varies from one person to another and in the same person it can vary at different times and situations.

Motivating someone, in a general sense, is about creating an environment in which they can meet their objectives by contributing their energy and effort, hence the importance of managers mastering this issue so that they value and act, ensuring that individual objectives match as closely as possible with those of the organization.

The purpose of this text is not the development of a deep theoretical treatise on the concept of motivation and its application in organizations, but on the contrary, it tries to give a practical approach that in turn allows reflection on this topic whose importance and utility It is unquestionable, on a personal and organizational level.

Index

What is Motivation

From the etymological point of view, the word Motivation is composed of the Latin Motivus (movement) and the suffix -tion (action and effect).

Motivation is a set of internal or external factors that partly determine a person's actions. (Meaning of Motivation in the dictionary of the Royal Spanish Academy)

Entering the psychological aspect of the concept, one of the most basic, but at the same time most complete, definitions of motivation is:

Motivation is an internal state that prompts, directs, and maintains behavior. (Woolfolk, p.372)

According to López (p.73), there are five motivational principles, namely:

  1. Principle of predisposition. When we are positively biased towards a task, its execution is almost always pleasant. When we change the "why?" by the "why not?", or the "this is unbearable" by the "what am I learning from this situation?", or "I'm angry because…" by the "I wonder why I am getting angry at this fact »(That is, I change anger for curiosity), we are applying this principle. Principle of consequence. We tend to reproduce experiences that have pleasant consequences and not repeat those that have unpleasant consequences. When we obtain an equal or better consequence than expected, we feel rewarded and we keep, consciously or unconsciously, that pleasant memory for which we tend to repeat that strategy. Principle of repetition. When a stimulus elicits a certain positive reaction, the link between the stimulus and the response can be strengthened with exercise or repetition. Thus, mastery in the execution of a task will be given, among other aspects, by repetition that is reinforced by a modeling towards excellence. Principle of novelty. All things being equal, controlled news tends to be more attractive and motivating than what is already known. This principle is true as long as it is approached with a certain control and with a high dose of personal security since, otherwise, the phenomenon of resistance to change may appear. Principle of the experience. Relate an experience that has been pleasant to us with what we wanted to achieve can be very motivating, that experience can refer both to some previously lived experience and to some novel experience that we can carry out by sensory management.

From the definition of motive, Carrasco (p.215) establishes the following concept of motivation:

A motive is something that constitutes a value for someone. Motivation, then, is made up of the set of values ​​that make a subject "get started" to achieve it. Motivation makes us come out of indifference to try to achieve the intended goal. There is no difference between motive and value: it motivates what is worth for each subject.

In this approach to the concept of motivation, the following elements are found:

  • Indifference: "regular" state of the subject who has not yet found any reason to take action. Reason: that something that mobilizes the subject, in this case it is identified as a «value». Objective: what the subject wants to achieve once it has started. Satisfaction: state of the subject once the objective has been reached.

It follows then that a typical motivational process would be something "linear", of cause-consequence, as the one expressed in the following graph:

Motivation concept: the basic process

This being the case, it could be said that once the subject reaches the objective (satisfaction), that motive that made it start is no longer a mobilizing factor, so the subject will return to the state of indifference that comes naturally to him..

Sometimes the terms motivation and satisfaction are confused, so we clarify:

  • Motivation is the drive and effort to satisfy a desire or goal, it is prior to the result. Satisfaction is the taste experienced when we achieve the desire, it is subsequent to the result.

From another perspective (Ardila, p.83) motivation is conceived as an intermediate variable (of behavior), that is to say that motivation itself is not observed, but motivated behavior is observed and the existence of the motivation.

The following figure shows the scheme of motivation as an intermediate variable, the intermediate link is not observed but is inferred by the antecedent conditions and the consequent behavior. The consequent behavior is observed, the antecedent conditions are manipulated, and the intermediate variable is inferred:

Motivation as an intermediate variable of behavior. Source: Ardila

Taking into account the antecedent conditions and the consequent behavior, the following elements are then taken (Woolfolk, p.374):

  • Intrinsic motivation: Motivation associated with activities that are reinforcing in themselves. What motivates us to do something when we don't have to. Extrinsic motivation: Motivation created by external factors such as rewards and punishments. When we do something to get a grade, avoid punishment, please the teacher, or for some other reason that has little to do with homework. Locus of causality: The location - internal or external - of the cause of the behavior. From the mere observation of behavior it is impossible to say whether its motivation is intrinsic or extrinsic.

Thus, a more technical definition is reached:

Motivation is the concatenated set of psychic processes (which involve higher nervous activity and reflect objective reality through the internal conditions of the personality) that by containing the active and relatively autonomous and creative role of the personality, and in its constant Reciprocal transformation and determination with external activity, its objects and stimuli, are aimed at satisfying the needs of the human being and, as a consequence, regulate the direction (the object-goal) and the intensity or activation of the behavior, and are manifested as activity motivated. (González, p.52)

In the following video an introductory presentation is made to the subject of the psychology of motivation, a more complete description of the concept of motivation is made than the one previously exposed:

What is self-motivation

Self-motivation is the motivation that one gets from the knowledge of its operation and its causes. That is, we speak of self-motivation when one plans to regulate the force that pushes her to act, based on the knowledge she has about herself. In this sense, and putting the term into practice, it is a conscious activity, a reflective subject, who tries to be the agent of his behavior. (Roca, p.10)

Is self-motivation different from intrinsic motivation? You could say that self-motivation is the next level of intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is something more instinctive than elaborate, while self-motivation requires a process that, according to Jiménez (p.58), has, at least, the following components:

  1. Clear objectives. Self-motivation thrives on well-defined goals, as specific as possible. If they are long term, better. A plan to achieve them. Self-motivation feeds on awareness of how to achieve goals. Decision action. It is essential that action is taken to achieve the purposes. Action makes a difference.

What is motivate

According to Urcola (pp. 54-59) to motivate is to provoke in others an energy that moves them towards a certain destination and whose strength or root is outside (extrinsic motivation), or within them (intrinsic or transcendent motivation -transcendent motivation is the one that produces benefits in other people-)… Motivate is to give or have a reason for action… Motivate is to seek for a person to do what they should do because they want to, not because they have a reward or punishment (ideal motivation)… To motivate it is essential to know the needs and desires of the subjects we want to motivate, to know what drives them.

Motivation focused on work and organization

The following definition expresses this concept in a simple but very clear way:

"Motivation is the willingness to make a great effort to achieve the goals of the organization, conditioned by the capacity of the effort to satisfy some personal need."

If we detail the definition we see that there are aspects that stand out, either explicitly or implicitly, they are:

  • Effort, energy deployed by the individual, which must be aimed at obtaining good work performance. Needs (deficiencies), which alter the balance of people's physical and / or mental conditions. Desires (intentional impulses), originated by needs. Goals, towards which the impulses tend to satisfy the needs.

What the manager should know about motivation

The motivation that originates can be directed towards increasing work or decreasing it, depending on the prevailing factors. Let's see some of them:

  • They can inspire towards the first case, increased work:
    • Desire for promotion The purpose of doing a good job Financial or other desires The desire to learn Fear of losing a job Convinced that your job is worth it.
    They can orient towards the second, decrease in work:
    • Problems in relationships with managers Difficulties or complications with work Necessity to not work

These aspects are not the only ones that influence motivation, however, the key to the problem is to raise the aspects that cause a positive effect and eliminate or minimize those that enhance the negative effect, or otherwise, make the goals compatible of the organization with personal needs.

  • The motivating aspects are not the same in all the people The motivating aspects vary with time and the situation in the same person What the organization achieves is the result of the joint efforts of all the people Nothing creates a greater commitment than feeling The essential factor in motivated people is to do things well An organization must be able to create conditions for an average employee to make efforts and obtain extraordinary results One of the main capacities of a manager (if not the main one) is his Ability to generate and awaken enthusiasm. Motivation is not a personal trait but rather the interaction of the individual and the situation. Motivating is not easy, for this, the needs of people must be known.

The main motivating factors within organizations are:

  • The results: successful results = more motivated worker. Participation: when the worker participates in the planning of the tasks, his personal and professional development is stimulated. The knowledge of objectives: the worker who knows in depth the objectives of the organization, his area and his position turns out to be more motivated than the one who does not know them or only does it superficially. The task: a task well done (a service provided with excellence, a product of the highest quality, etc.) is what motivates the worker the most because it is their greatest satisfaction and reward. RetributionAlthough salary is not enough to ensure good performance, it is a motivating factor that adds up to making the employee feel more valued. The rewards: the incentive for a job well done turns out to be motivating most of the time. Recognition: promotion for merit, public congratulations and other types of recognition promote positive worker motivation. Responsibility: the ability to plan, set goals, make decisions and innovate are elements that provide a greater degree of motivation within organizations. Growth: training, development and promotion have a positive impact on making work productive. Punishments and sanctions: they are a double-edged sword that can lead to motivation and negative behaviors, their use should be done primarily to correct unwanted behaviors that go against the values ​​and organizational culture.

Main motivating factors. Source: Díaz and León (p.157)

“Our main responsibility is to create an environment for talent to flourish. We cannot give our people only philosophy or instructions. We must help and motivate her to reach her potential and, above all, to reach it as a group, which is the greatest success. » Lic. Ari Kahan

What the manager should work on

Undoubtedly, managers (bosses) are in charge of creating an environment conducive to workers being positively motivated since they have the possibility of:

  • Creation of precise and simple motivational values ​​Treating workers as the most important assets; It is not to give them or make unnecessary concessions but to seriously respect them, give them confidence and practical autonomy, train them and set logical expectations Allow and create conditions in the development of work that lead to a greater commitment to workers Investigate what the objectives of the employees are, listening, observing and interpreting what concerns them Link the objectives of the people with the requirements of the task Design of an attractive and functional incentive system, it is understood that we are not only talking about material issues or money, there is another large group of them as recognition, autonomy, success, satisfaction, friendship, identification,Be part of a team with good results and others Quick in stimulation or recognition Work together with the Human Resources Area in creating a list of preferred motivations, as well as motivations for particular cases.

Regarding what has been raised, let's see the following quote:

“The effective manager is the person who, through communication and sensitive listening, establishes the links between what I do, the objectives I have, the objectives of the organization and what I will be paid in case of success. If my Director does this well, I will be motivated to do my best ” John W. Hunt.

Dan Pink, author of "The Surprising Truth About What Motivates Us," presents below a wonderful conclusion about motivation in business, you have to see it:

Motivation theories

Known and / or reviewed the elements previously seen, we will raise some theories related to the subject in question.

Actually these theories are relatively new since it is not until the second half of the 20th century that this aspect is truly deepened, however research on the subject is still continuing.

Some authors classify these theories as:

  • Content theories (satisfaction). These theories are those that study and consider the aspects (such as their needs, their aspirations and the level of satisfaction of these) that can motivate people. Process theories. They are those that study or take into account the thought process by which the person is motivated.

The following figure shows the relationship between the different theories of motivation that will be detailed later:

A comprehensive view of the theories of motivation. Source: Chiavenato, p.259

Among the content theories we can mention the following:

  • Theory of the Pyramid of Needs. (Abraham Maslow) “X” Theory and “Y” Theory (Douglas McGregor) Motivation Theory - Hygiene (Frederick Herzberg) ERG Theory (Existence, Relatedness and Growth) (Clayton Alderfer) McClelland's Theory of Needs. (David McClelland)

Regarding the process theories, the following stand out:

  • Expectations theory. (Víctor Vroom) Theory of Equity. (Stacey Adams) Theory of Behavior Modification. (BF Skinner)

We will now go on to expose the essential aspects of each of these theories.

Maslow's pyramid of needs theory

This theory is the best known and was proposed by Abraham H. Maslow and is based on the fact that each human strives to satisfy staggered needs, which are satisfied from lower to higher levels, the needs corresponding to the level at which the person is..

Maslow's Pyramid of Needs (Source: Wikimedia)

The levels of the pyramid represent the following needs.

  1. Physiological Needs: They are related to the human being as a biological being, they are the most important since they have to do with the needs to stay alive, breathe, eat, drink, sleep, have sex, etc. Security Needs: Linked to the needs of feeling safe, without danger, order, security, keeping your job. Needs of Belonging (Social): Needs of human relationships with harmony, being a member of a group, receiving love and affection from family, friends, people of the opposite sex. Esteem Needs: Need to feel worthy, respected, with prestige, power, including those of self-esteem. Self-actualization needs: They are also called growth needs, they include fulfillment, taking advantage of one's own potential, doing what one likes, and is capable of achieving it. It is related to the needs of esteem. We can cite autonomy, independence, self-control.

Some considerations about Maslow's hierarchy of needs:

  • Physiological needs are considered to be born with man, the others are acquired over time. As people manage to control or satisfy their basic needs, higher order needs arise. Basic needs are satisfied in a relatively shorter time than superiors Physiological and safety needs are generally met by adequate pay and a safe work environment Needs for belonging and esteem are met through being part of a team at work and with affection, and friendship.Acknowledgement, encouragement, performance feedback, will satisfy esteem needs.People will be motivated by the need most important to them.Each need must be met, at least partially,before you want to move on to a higher level.

Maslow discovered two additional needs, for people with the previous five satisfied (very few people according to him), which he called cognitive.

  • Need to know and understand, related to the desire to know and understand the world that surrounds them and nature. Need for aesthetic satisfaction, related to the needs of beauty, symmetry and art in general.

It is noteworthy that this theory also has its detractors who raise some elements against it, such as:

  • It assumes that all people are the same, not knowing that there may be a need for someone that someone else is not. The theory assumes the order of needs with little flexibility to change. It is not practical since it focuses on the development of people but not consider incentive by the organization.

Here is a video-lesson in which Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory is condensed, in a rather didactic way:

McGregor's "X" and "Y" Theories

Theory X

Its creator called this theory "Hypothesis of the mediocrity of the masses"

Its main principles are:

  1. An average person has an aversion to work and will avoid it as much as possible. Human beings have to be coerced, controlled and sometimes threatened with sanctions in order to strive to achieve the objectives of the organization. That the average human being is lazy and prefers to be directed, avoids responsibilities, has no ambitions and above all wants security.

McGregor, argued that this theory was not imaginary, but real and that it influenced the management strategy. It also assumes that lower-order needs dominate people.

Theory Y

Its main principles are:

  1. That the physical and mental effort that is made at work is as natural as that expended at play, at rest. The effort required to achieve the organization's objectives is based on the rewards associated with their achievement and not necessarily with external control and the threat of sanctions. The average individual, in desired conditions, not only accepts responsibilities, but also comes to seek them. There are not few and are quite widespread in people developed qualities of imagination, inventiveness and creativity in the solution of the organization's problems. Human beings will exercise self-direction and self-control in the fulfillment of the objectives with which they are committed.

The “Y” theory assumes that higher order needs dominate people. It also assumed that the assumptions of this were more valid than those of Theory "X".

He proposed ideas such as participation in decision making, responsibility and challenges.

In general, the assumptions of both theories may be suitable in specific situations.

A summary of the principles and implications of McGregor's X and Y theories in the following Educatina video.

Herzberg's motivation-hygiene theory

This theory was developed by the psychologist Frederick Herzberg, who had the criterion that the level of performance in people varies depending on the level of satisfaction, that is, that the responses to work were different when they felt good or when they felt wrong.

As a distinctive aspect, comparing it with Maslow's theory, motivation is based on the external environment and on man's work and not on human needs.

Herzberg carried out his research in companies in Pittsburg, USA, the results led him to group the related elements in his theory into two factors, these are hygiene and motivation.

It contemplates aspects that can create satisfaction or dissatisfaction at work, with the exception that they should not be considered as opposites, since the presence of hygiene factors does not motivate, but their absence demotivates; the other factors, the motivational factors, really motivate.

Motivational factors, Herzberg called them intrinsic, and hygiene factors, extrinsic. We list them below:

Motivational factors (intrinsic)

  • Recognition Responsibility Personal fulfillment or achievement Work itself Progress or promotion

Hygiene Factors (extrinsic)

  • Company policy Administration Interpersonal relationships (with superiors, with peers, with subordinates) Working conditions Supervision Status Salary Job security

This theory states that job satisfaction is a function of the content or stimulating activities, that is, of the motivating factors, and dissatisfaction depends on the environment, on relationships with other people and on the general environment in this case, on hygienic factors.

As a practical element, for managers, we must state that the question lies in eliminating or reducing the negative influences of hygiene factors and reinforcing motivational factors, the latter have no limits and it is necessary to strengthen them systematically.

Remember that motivation (or its effect) is not static, so it is necessary to be attentive to its variation to make the timely correction.

Some suggestions that reinforce the motivational factors mentioned above.

  • Encourage people to accept responsibility Communicate positive expressions made by clients or others about their work Reward the results of work (not necessarily with money) How they do their work is not the most important thing but Your results. Delegate the entire task, if possible, to a single person. Encourage them to present criteria and ideas in relation to their projects or their orientations. Allow them to answer questions and give explanations. Entrust (truly) tasks to be surpassed. authority Highlight the content of each task Be certain they have understood the task well Create conditions for everyone to have the possibility of promotion Allow and encourage participation in training courses Correctly assess the capacity of each person.

An executive summary of Herzberg's theory of the two factors (motivation-hygiene) in the following video from the Polytechnic University of Madrid:

ERG Theory (ERC)

This theory owes its name to the words: Existence, Relatedness and Growth (ERG), which translated mean: Existence, Relationship and Growth (ERC) and was developed by Clayton Alderfer as we stated above.

It is not truly based on new elements, but rather bases its three groups of needs on Maslow's pyramid of needs.

The correspondence with Maslow is as follows:

  • Existence, the group of needs that it satisfies are those related to the basic requirements of life (physiological and safety needs). Relationship, as its name expresses, requires for its satisfaction of interpersonal relationships and belonging to a group (social needs or belonging). Growth represents the desire for internal growth as well as needs for recognition, self-esteem, self-realization and personal development (needs for esteem and self-realization).

Like Maslow, he argued that lower-order needs, once satisfied, interested people to satisfy higher-order needs, and in contrast, that various needs could be motivated at the same time and that frustration in a higher need could cause a regression to a lower one.

In the following video an excellent synthesis of Clayton Alderfer's ERC Theory (ERG) is made:

McClelland's theory of needs

This theory is based on three acquired needs:

  1. Realization Needs, his interest is to develop, stand out by accepting personal responsibilities, he is also distinguished by trying to do things well, to be successful even above the rewards.

    They seek to face problems, they want feedback to know their results and they face success or failure. Power Needs, their main trait is to have influence and control over others and they strive for this. They prefer fighting, competition, and are very concerned about their prestige and influencing other people even more than their results. Sonship Needs, their essential trait being requested and accepted by others, they pursue friendship and cooperation instead of struggle, they seek understanding and good relationships.

In the following video you will find a short and precise explanation of McClelland's theory of acquired needs

Vroom's theory of expectations

This theory or model for motivation was developed by Víctor Vroom and enriched on several occasions, especially by Poster and Lawler.

It is based on the fact that the effort to obtain high performance is dependent on the possibility of achieving the latter and that once achieved it is rewarded in such a way that the effort made has been worth it.

It is explained on the basis that this is the result of the product of three factors that are: Valencia, Expectation and Means.

Valencia (V). It is the inclination, the preference to receive a reward. It has a unique valence value for each reward at any given time, although this may vary over time depending on the satisfaction of needs and the emergence of others.

Expectation (E). It is a relationship between the effort made and the performance obtained in carrying out a task.

Media (M). It is the estimate that a person has about obtaining a reward.

Motivation is expressed as the product of these factors seen above:

Motivation = V x E x M

Valencia can be positive or negative, in the first case there will be a desire to achieve a certain result and in the other case the desire will be to flee from a certain final result.

The Expectation, a value between 0 and 1 is assumed depending on your estimate of the effort made and the performance obtained, if you do not see a correspondence between effort and performance, the value will be 0 and vice versa 1.

The Means also assume a value between 0 and 1, if their estimation of the obtaining of reward is equitable with their performance, this factor will have a high rating and otherwise it will be low.

According to D. Nadler and E. Lawler, the foundation of this method is based on four assumptions:

  1. Behavior depends on the combination of the forces of people and the environment around them. People make conscious decisions about their behavior. People have different needs, desires and goals. People choose between different behavioral options.

Through the following video you will understand Vroom's theory of expectations and its practical implications:

Stacey Adams Equity Theory

This theory is manifested and focused on the basis of the criteria that the person is formed based on the reward he receives, comparing it with the rewards received by other people who perform the same work or with similar contributions.

In this regard, Stacey Adams states «The Equity theory holds that the motivation, performance and satisfaction of an employee depend on his subjective evaluation of the relationships between his effort-reward ratio and the effort-reward ratio of others in similar situations ».

The comparisons can be on different aspects such as salary or others.

Let us bear in mind that people are different as well as the form or method to be used for the analysis of a specific aspect.

According to this theory, when a person understands that an injustice has been committed to them, their tension increases and the way to solve it is by varying their behavior.

Richard A. Cosier and Dan R. Dalton in "Equity Theory and Time: A Reformulation" noted in this regard: "Labor relationships are not static and that injustices generally do not exist as isolated or one-time phenomena, and that beyond a certain threshold people will not tolerate any more unfair events.

In the following video you will find a brief and instructive explanation of Adams' theory of equity:

BF Skinner's theory of behavior modification

First of all, we must state that Skinner together with other psychologists formulated the Theory of Reinforcement, which is based on forgetting inner motivation and instead consider the way in which the consequences of a previous behavior affect future actions in a cyclical learning process.

Stimulus> Response> Consequences> Future response

Behavior modification is based on this theory of Reinforcement, that is, to change a behavior it is necessary to change the consequences of said behavior.

For behavior modification, several methods can be applied, including:

  • Positive reinforcement Nullification learning Extinction Punishment Desired behaviors are reinforced Workers vary their behavior to avoid unpleasant consequences Absence of reinforcement applies Negative consequences are applied

Taken from Reinforcement Theory and Contingency Management in Organizational Settings by W. Clay Hamner we set forth his rules for using behavior modification techniques.

  1. Rule 1. Don't reward everyone equally. They must be based on performance. Rule 2. Remember that not responding also modifies behavior. What is not done has an influence on employees as well as what is done. Rule 3. Be sure to tell staff what to do to get reinforcement. Establish what level of performance allows people to know what they will have to do to be rewarded. Rule 4. Be sure to tell the staff what you are doing wrong. Rule 5. Do not punish in the presence of others. Repression in public humiliates just as others may also be upset. Rule 6. Be fair.

The following video briefly introduces Skinner's concept of operant conditioning:

Summary

We have seen some of the main motivation theories, as well as the presentation of aspects that we consider important and that could be of help in this important task, such as the management of people.

In relation to motivation, there are other aspects that could be taken into account, although we think that what has been proposed includes important elements and that they allow us a vision with sufficient breadth to obtain good results in the exercise of motivation.

The grouping of theories is carried out by other authors in a different way, although the content of these is essentially the same, remember that in our case we did it in the following way:

  • Content theories (satisfaction). They study and consider the aspects (such as their needs, their aspirations and the level of satisfaction of these) that can motivate people. Process theories. They study or take into account the thought process by which the person is motivated.

Content theories:

  • Theory of the Pyramid of Needs. (From Abraham Maslow) “X” Theory and “Y” Theory (From Douglas Mc. Gregor) Motivation Theory - Hygiene (From Frederick Herzberg) ERG Theory (Existence, Relatedness and Growth) (From Clayton Alderfer) McClelland's Theory of the needs. (From David McClelland)

Process theories:

  • Expectations theory. (From Víctor Vroom) Theory of Equity. (From Stacey Adams) Theory of Behavior Modification. (BF Skinner)

A great ending to this document is an eloquent quote from the text: "In Search of Excellence":

“I am convinced that the vast majority of people want to work well and be productive, logically they will do so if they are offered a suitable environment, within the framework of consideration and respect; as well as acknowledging their effort and results, also alerting them to their mistakes ”. T. Peters and R. Waterman

Bibliography

  • JW Hunt. The Directorate of Personnel in Organizations J. Balderston. How to organize and simplify administrative work T. Peters and R. Waterman. In Search of Excellence M. Cambric; A. Ros; V. Ferriol. Organizational Behavior.Ortueta 5. Edition (Spain). Personnel Management Techniques A. Kahan. Consistent Success Keith Davis and John Newstrom. Human behavior at work Genovese Claudio. HR management in the new scenarios Juan Luis Luis Urcola Tellería. Motivation begins with oneself.Chiavenato, I. Organizational behavior. The dynamics of success in organizations Rosa López Rodríguez. The management of personal and collective time. Elena Díaz Paniagua, Miriam León Sánchez. Human resources and team management in restoration DC McClelland. The Achieving Society. Juan Carlos Jiménez.Paradigms of Personal Motivation. Abraham H. Maslow. Motivation and Personality.Diego J. González S. Psychology of motivation.Anita Woolfolk. Educational Psychology T. Peters and N. Austin. Passion for Excellence J. Stacey Adams. Toward an Understanding of Inequity. José Bernardo Carrasco. A didactic for today: how to teach better. Rubén Ardila. Psychology of learning. Josep Roca. Self motivation.
Motivation, concept and main theories