ORIGINS OF SYSTEMS THEORY
Systems theory (TS) is a specific branch of general systems theory (TGS).
The TGS arose with the works of the German Ludwig von Bertalanffy, published between 1950 and 1968. The TGS does not seek to solve problems or try practical solutions, but rather to produce theories and conceptual formulations that can create conditions of application in empirical reality.
The basic assumptions of the TGS are:
- There is a clear trend towards the integration of various natural and social sciences, which seems to be oriented towards a systems theory, which can be a broader way of studying the non-physical fields of scientific knowledge, especially in the social sciences. With this systems theory, by developing unifying principles that vertically cross the particular universes of the various sciences involved, we approach the objective of the unity of science, which can generate a much-needed integration in science education.
The TGS asserts that the properties of systems cannot be described in terms of their separate elements; their understanding comes when they are studied globally.
The TGS is based on three basic premises:
- Systems exist within systems: each system exists within a larger one. Systems are open: it is a consequence of the previous one. Each system that is examined, except the minor or major, receives and downloads something to the other systems, usually the contiguous ones. Open systems are characterized by a process of infinite change with their environment, which are the other systems. When the exchange ceases, the system disintegrates, that is, it loses its energy sources. The functions of a system depend on its structure: for biological and mechanical systems this statement is intuitive. Muscle tissues, for example, contract because they are made up of a cellular structure that allows contractions.
The interest of the TGS are the characteristics and parameters it establishes for all systems. Applied to the administration of TS, the company is seen as a structure that is reproduced and visualized through a decision-making system, both individually and collectively.
From a historical point of view, it is verified that:
- The theory of scientific management used the concept of the man-machine system, but was limited to the level of factory work. The theory of human relations extended the man-machine approach to the relationships between people within the organization. It caused a profound revision of managerial criteria and techniques. Structuralist theory conceives the company as a social system, recognizing that there is both a formal and an informal system within a total integrated system. The theory of behavior brought the theory of decision, where The company is seen as a decision system, since all the participants in the company make decisions within a tangle of exchange relationships, which characterize organizational behavior. After the Second World War,Through mathematical theory, operational research was applied to solve large and complex problems with many variables. Queuing theory was deepened and models were formulated for typical service provision situations, in which it is necessary to program the quantity optimal number of servers for an expected influx of clients.
Traditional theories have viewed human organization as a closed system. This has led to not taking into account the environment, causing little development and understanding of feedback, basic to survive.
The old approach was weak, since 1) it dealt with few of the significant variables of the total situation and 2) many times it has been supported by improper variables.
The concept of systems is not a technology in itself, but it is the result of it. The analysis of living organizations reveals "the general in the particular" and shows the general properties of the species that are able to adapt and survive in a typical environment. Living systems, whether individuals or organizations, are analyzed as "open systems", which maintain a continuous exchange of matter / energy / information with the environment. The TS allows to reconceptualize the phenomena within a global approach, to integrate matters that are, in most of the times of a completely different nature.
SYSTEMS CONCEPT
- A set of dynamically related elements Forming an activity To achieve a goal Operating on data / energy / matter To provide information / energy / matter
Systems features
System is an organized and complex whole; a set or combination of things or parts that form a complex or unitary whole. It is a set of objects united by some form of interaction or interdependence. The limits or boundaries between the system and its environment admit a certain arbitrariness.
According to Bertalanffy, system is a set of reciprocally related units. From there two concepts follow: purpose (or objective) and globalism (or totality).
- Purpose or objective: every system has one or some purposes. The elements (or objects), as well as the relationships, define a distribution that always tries to achieve a goal. Globalism or totality: a change in one of the units of the system, with probability will produce changes in the others. The total effect is presented as an adjustment to the entire system. There is a cause / effect relationship. From these changes and adjustments, two phenomena are derived: entropy and homeostasis. Entropy: it is the tendency of systems to wear out, to disintegrate, for the relaxation of standards and an increase in randomness. The entropy increases with the passage of time. If information increases, entropy decreases, since information is the basis of configuration and order. This is where negentropy is born, that is,information as a means or instrument for organizing the system. Homeostasis: is the dynamic balance between the parts of the system. Systems have a tendency to adapt in order to achieve internal balance in the face of external changes in the environment.
An organization can be understood as a system or subsystem or a supersystem, depending on the approach. The total system is the one represented by all the components and relationships necessary for the realization of an objective, given a certain number of restrictions. The systems can operate, both in series and in parallel.
Types of systems
Regarding their constitution, they can be physical or abstract:
- Physical or concrete systems: made up of real equipment, machinery, objects and things. The hardware. Abstract systems: made up of concepts, plans, hypotheses and ideas. Many times they only exist in people's thoughts. It's the software.
Regarding their nature, they can be closed or open:
- Closed systems: they do not show exchange with the environment that surrounds them, they are hermetic to any environmental influence. They do not receive any external resources and they produce nothing to be sent out. Strictly speaking, there are no closed systems. The name of closed system is given to those systems whose behavior is deterministic and programmed and that operates with very little exchange of energy and matter with the environment. The term is applied to fully structured systems, where elements and relationships are combined in a peculiar and rigid way, producing an invariable output, like machines. Open systems: they present exchange with the environment, through inputs and outputs. They exchange energy and matter with the environment. They are adaptive to survive.Its structure is optimal when the set of elements of the system is organized, approaching an adaptive operation. Adaptability is a continuous process of learning and self-organization.
The Open systems can not live isolated. Closed systems comply with the second principle of thermodynamics which says that "a certain quantity called entropy tends to increase to the maximum".
There is a general trend of events in physical nature towards a state of maximum disorder. Open systems avoid increasing entropy and can develop towards a state of increasing order and organization (negative entropy). Open systems restore your own energy and repair losses in your own organization. The open system concept can be applied at various levels of approach: at the level of the individual, the group, the organization and the society.
| Ambient | → | Tickets | → | Transformation or processing | → | Departures | → | Ambient | ||
| information | information | |||||||||
| Energy | Energy | |||||||||
| Material resources | Material resources |
SYSTEM PARAMETERS
The system is characterized by certain parameters. Parameters are arbitrary constants that characterize, by their properties, the value and dimensional description of a specific system or a component of the system.
The parameters of the systems are:
- Input or input or impulse (input): it is the starting force of the system, which provides the material or energy for the operation of the system Output or product or result (output): it is the purpose for which elements and relationships were gathered of the system. The results of a process are the outputs, which must be consistent with the objective of the system. The results of the systems are final, while the results of the subsystems with intermediates. Processing or processor or transformer (throughput): it is the phenomenon that produces changes, it is the mechanism of conversion of the inputs into outputs or results. It is generally represented as the black box, in which the inputs enter and different things come out, which are the products. Feedback or feedback or feedback:It is the return function of the system that tends to compare the output with a pre-established criterion, keeping it controlled within that standard or criterion. Environment: it is the means that externally surrounds the system. It is in constant interaction with the system, since it receives inputs, processes them and makes outputs. The survival of a system depends on its ability to adapt, change and respond to the demands and demands of the external environment. Although the environment can be a resource to the system, it can also be a threat.The survival of a system depends on its ability to adapt, change and respond to the demands and demands of the external environment. Although the environment can be a resource to the system, it can also be a threat.The survival of a system depends on its ability to adapt, change and respond to the demands and demands of the external environment. Although the environment can be a resource to the system, it can also be a threat.
THE OPEN SYSTEM
The open system as an organism is influenced by the environment and influences it, reaching a dynamic balance in that sense.
The most important category of open systems are living systems. There are differences between open systems (such as biological and social systems, namely cells, plants, man, organization, society) and closed systems (such as physical systems, machines, clock, thermostat):
- The open system constantly interacts with the environment in a dual way, that is, it influences and is influenced. The closed system does not interact. The open system can grow, change, adapt to the environment and even reproduce under certain environmental conditions. The closed system does not. It is typical of the open system to compete with other systems, not the closed system.
Like living organisms, companies have six primary functions, closely related to each other:
- Ingestion: companies make or purchase materials to be processed. They acquire money, machines and people from the environment to assist other functions, just as living organisms ingest food, water and air to supply their needs. Processing: Animals ingest and process food to be transformed into energy and organic cells. In the company, production is equivalent to this cycle. Materials are processed and what is useless is discarded, with a relationship between inputs and outputs. Reaction to the environment: the animal reacts to its environment, adapting to survive, it must flee or else attack. The company reacts as well, changing its materials, consumers, employees and financial resources. Product, process or structure may be altered. Provision of parts:Parts of a living organism can be supplied with materials, just as blood supplies the body. The participants of the company can be replaced, they are not of their functions but also by purchasing, production, sales or accounting data and they are rewarded in the form of salaries and benefits. Money is often considered the lifeblood of the company.Regeneration of parts: the parts of an organism lose efficiency, become sick or die and must be regenerated or relocated to survive in the whole. Members of a company age, retire, become ill, become disengaged, or die. The machines become obsolete. Both men and machines must be maintained or relocated, hence the personnel and maintenance function. Organization: of the functions,It is required by a communication system for control and decision making. In the case of animals, they require care in adaptation. In the company, a central nervous system is needed, where the functions of production, purchasing, marketing, rewards and maintenance must be coordinated. In an environment of constant change, forecasting, planning, research and development are necessary aspects so that the administration can make adjustments.research and development are necessary for the administration to make adjustments.research and development are necessary for the administration to make adjustments.
The open system is a set of interacting parts constituting a synergistic whole, oriented towards certain purposes and in a permanent relationship of interdependence with the external environment.
THE ORGANIZATION AS AN OPEN SYSTEM
Herbert Spencer stated at the beginning of the 20th century:
“A social organism resembles an individual organism in the following essential features:
- In growth In the fact that it becomes more complex as it grows In the fact that becoming more complex, its parts demand an increasing interdependence Because its life has immense extension compared to the life of its component units Because in both cases there is growing integration accompanied by growing heterogeneity ”.
According to the structuralist theory, Taylor, Fayol and Weber used the rational model, approaching the organizations as a closed system. Systems are closed when they are isolated from external variables and when they are deterministic rather than probabilistic. A deterministic system is one in which a specific change in one of its variables will produce a particular result with certainty. Thus, the system requires that all its variables be known and controllable or predictable. According to Fayol, organizational efficiency will always prevail if organizational variables are controlled within certain known limits.
Characteristics of organizations as open systems
Organizations have all the characteristics of open systems. Some basic characteristics of organizations are:
- Probabilistic and non-deterministic behavior of organizations: the organization is affected by the environment and said environment is potentially borderless and includes unknown and uncontrolled variables. The consequences of social systems are probabilistic and non-deterministic. Human behavior is never totally predictable, since people are complex, responding to different variables. For this reason, the administration cannot expect that consumers, suppliers, regulatory agencies and others, have a predictable behavior. Organizations as parts of a larger society and made up of smaller parts: organizations are seen as systems within systems. These systems are complexes of elements placed in interaction,producing a whole that cannot be understood by taking the parts independently. Talcott Parsons indicated about the global vision, integration, highlighting that from the organizational point of view, this was a part of a larger system, taking as a starting point the treatment of the organization as a social system, following the following approach:
- The organization must be approached as a system characterized by all the essential properties of any social system. The organization must be approached as a functionally differentiated system from a larger social system. The organization must be analyzed as a special type of social system. organized around the primacy of interest in the achievement of a certain type of systematic goal The characteristics of the organization must be defined by the kind of situation in which it needs to operate, consisting of the relationship between it and the other subsystems, components of the system greater of which part. As if it were a society.
ORGANIZATION MODELS
Schein proposes a list of aspects that a systems theory should consider in the definition of organization:
- The organization must be considered as an open system The organization must be conceived as a system with multiple objectives or functions The organization must be viewed as consisting of many subsystems that are in dynamic interaction with each other As the subsystems are mutually dependent, a change in one of them will affect the others. The organization exists in a dynamic environment that comprises other systems. The multiple links between the organization and its environment make it difficult to define the boundaries of any organization.
Katz and Kahn model
They developed a broader and more complex organizational model through the application of TS and the theory of organizations. According to its model, the organization has the following characteristics:
The organization as an open system
For Katz and Kahn, the organization as an open system has the following characteristics:
- Import (input): the organization receives inputs from the environment and needs energy supplies from other institutions, people or the environment. No social structure is self-sufficient. Transformation (processing): open systems transform available energy. The organization processes and transforms inputs into finished products, labor, services, etc. Export (outputs): open systems export certain products to the environment Systems as repeating cycles: the operation of any system consists of cycles repetitive import-transformation-export. Import and export are transactions that involve the system in certain sectors of its immediate environment, transformation or processing is a process contained within the system itself Negative entropy:open systems need to move to stop the entropic process and replenish energy while maintaining their organizational structure indefinitely. This process is called negative entropy or negentropy. Information as input, negative feedback and coding process: living systems receive as inputs, materials containing energy that are transformed by the work done. They also receive information, providing signals about the environment. The simplest information input is negative feedback, which allows the system to correct its deviations from the correct line. The parts of the system send information on how they operate to a central mechanism and thus maintain the correct direction. If such negative feedback is interrupted, the steady state of the system disappears.The encoding process allows the system to react selectively to the information signals for which it is programmed. It is a system of selection of inputs through which materials are rejected or accepted and introduced to its structure Firm state and dynamic homeostasis: open systems are characterized by a firm state, since there is a continuous influx of energy from outside and a continuous export of the system's products. The simplest tendency of the firm state is homeostasis, but its basic principle is the preservation of the character of the system, that is, a quasi-stationary equilibrium. Systems react to change or anticipate it through growth that assimilates new energy inputs into the nature of their structures. Homeostasis is a regulatory mechanism.Differentiation: the organization, like all open systems, tends towards differentiation, that is, to the multiplication and elaboration of functions, which also brings multiplication of roles and internal differentiation Equifinality: open systems are characterized by the principle of equifinality, that is, a system can reach, by a variety of paths, the same final state, starting from different initial conditions.Limits or borders: as an open system, the organization presents limits or borders, that is, barriers between the environment and the environment. system. They define the field of action of the system, as well as its degree of openness.Equifinality: open systems are characterized by the principle of equifinality, that is, a system can reach, through a variety of ways, the same final state, starting from different initial conditions.Limits or borders: as an open system, the organization has limits or borders, that is, barriers between the environment and the system. They define the field of action of the system, as well as its degree of openness.Equifinality: open systems are characterized by the principle of equifinality, that is, a system can reach, through a variety of ways, the same final state, starting from different initial conditions.Limits or borders: as an open system, the organization has limits or borders, that is, barriers between the environment and the system. They define the field of action of the system, as well as its degree of openness.
Organizations as a class of social systems
Organizations are a class of social systems, which in turn are open systems. Organizations share properties such as negative entropy, feedback, homeostasis, differentiation and equifinality with all open systems. Open systems tend towards elaboration and differentiation, due to their own dynamics.
Social systems consist of standardized activities of a number of individuals. They are repetitive, relatively durable, and linked in space and time. The stability or recurrence of activities exists in relation to the energy input into the system, in relation to the transformation of energies within the system and in relation to the resulting product or energy output. Maintaining this activity requires constant renewal of energy. It is known as negentropy.
First-order characteristics
For Katz and Kahn, the characteristics of organizations as social systems are the following:
- Social systems, unlike other basic structures, are not limited in scope. Social organizations are linked to a concrete world of human beings, material resources, factories and other artifacts, even if they are not interacting. The social system is independent of any specific physical part, being able to lighten or replace it. The social system is the structuring of events or events and not the structuring of physical parts. Social systems need inputs of production and maintenance. Maintenance inputs are the energy imports that sustain the system; production inputs are energy imports, processed to provide a productive result Social systems have their planned nature, that is,They are essentially invented, man-made and imperfect systems. Social systems present greater variability than biological systems. Social systems need control forces to reduce the variability and instability of human actions. Functions, norms and values as the main components of the social system: functions describe specific forms of behavior associated with certain tasks. The functions are developed from the requirements of the task. Norms are demanding expectations, which reach all those who are concerned with the performance of a function, in a system or subsystem. Values are the most widespread ideological justifications and aspirations. Social organizations constitute a formalized system of functions.The concept of partial inclusion: the organization uses only the knowledge and skills of the people that are important to it The organization in relation to its environment: the organizational functioning must be studied in relation to the continuous transactions with the environment that surrounds it.
Organizational culture and climate
Every organization creates its own culture or climate, with its own taboos, customs and uses. The climate or culture of the system reflects both the norms and values of the formal system and its reinterpretation in the informal system, as well as the internal and external disputes of the types of people that the organization attracts, of its work processes and physical distribution, of the modes of communication and the exercise of authority within the system. These collective feelings and beliefs are transmitted to the new members of the group.
System dynamics
To maintain themselves, organizations resort to the multiplication of mechanisms, since they lack the stability of biological systems. Thus, they create reward structures to link their members to the system, establish norms and values and control devices. While in TS we speak of dynamic homeostasis (or maintenance of equilibrium by constant adjustment and anticipation), the term system dynamics is used in social organizations: the main system and the subsystems that compose it make it become more and more what it basically is. To survive (and avoid entropy), the social organization must ensure a continuous supply of materials and men (negative entropy).
Organizational effectiveness concept
Efficiency refers to how much input an organization emerges as a product and how much is absorbed by the system. Efficiency is related to the organization's need for survival. Organizational effectiveness relates to the extent to which all forms of performance for the organization are maximized. Efficiency seeks increases through technical and economic solutions, while effectiveness seeks to maximize performance for the organization, by technical and economic means (efficiency) and by political means (not economic).
Organization as a system of papers
Role is the set of activities required of an individual who occupies a certain position in an organization. The organization is constituted by roles or set of activities expected of individuals and by sets of roles or groups that overlap. Organization is a structure of roles.
Sociotechnical model of Tavistock
It was proposed by sociologists and psychologists at the Tavistock Institute for Human Relations, based on research conducted in English coal mines and Indian textile companies.
He conceives the organization as a sociotechnical system structured on two subsystems:
The technical subsystem: involves technology, territory and time. He is responsible for the potential efficiency of the organization.
The social subsystem: includes individuals, social relationships and the demands of both formal and informal organization. Transform potential efficiency into actual efficiency.
These two subsystems are closely interrelated, interdependent, and mutually influence each other. The sociotechnical approach conceives the organization as a combination of technology and at the same time a social subsystem. The open system model proposed by the sociotechnical approach imports things from the environment, which, based on certain conversion processes, converts into products, services, etc., for export. The primary task of the organization is something that allows it to survive within that process of:
Import: acquisition of raw materials.
Conversion: transformation of imports into exports.
Export: placement of import and conversion results.
The rationale for this approach is that any production system requires both a technological organization and a work organization. Technology limits the kind of work organization possible, although the organization has its own social and psychological properties but independent of technology.
Organizations have a double function: technical (related to the coordination of work and identification of authority) and social (referring to the means of relating people, to get them to work together).
The technical subsystem is determined by the typical requirements of the tasks that are executed by the organization. Technology determines the type of human input required into the organization. It is also the determining factor of the organizational structure and the relationships between services. But this subsystem cannot be viewed in isolation, since it is responsible for the potential efficiency of the organization. The technical and social subsystems coexist, if one is altered, the other will have repercussions.
CRITICAL APPRECIATION OF THE THEORY OF SYSTEMS
Of all the theories, TS is the least criticized, since not enough time has elapsed for its deeper analysis. However, a critical appraisal of TS leads to the following aspects:
Confrontation between open and closed system theories
There are several critical implications between distinguishing an open and a closed system, from an administrative point of view, there are the following of the open system:
The dynamic nature of the environment is in conflict with the static tendency of the organization. It is constituted to be self-perpetuating instead of changing according to the transformations of the environment.
A rigid organizational system cannot survive if it does not respond by adapting to the environment.
An open system needs to guarantee the absorption of its products by the environment. To guarantee its viability, it must offer the environment products for the need or create a need for such products.
The system needs constant and refined information from the environment. Constant, refined and fast feedback is essential for the system.
Contrary to this open approach, the closed system perspective indicates the following distortions:
It leads the study and administrative practice to a concentration on internal operating rules, efficiency as the primary criterion of organizational viability and therefore, emphasis on procedures and not on programs.
The perspective of organization as a closed system, is given by the insensitivity of the traditional administration to the differences between organizational environments and by the inattention to the dependence between the organization and its environment. Solutions, instruments and techniques are non-transferable, since the environment does not make a difference.
The perspective of the organization as a closed system, leads to insensitivity towards the need for changes and continuous and urgent adaptation of the organization's responses to the environment. In an environment of rapid change, organizations will disappear if they do not adapt to change.
BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SYSTEMATIC ANALYSIS
The main characteristics of modern management theory based on systematic analysis are the following:
Systematic point of view: modern theory views the organization as a system made up of five basic parts: input, output, process, feedback and environment.
Dynamic approach: the emphasis of modern theory is on the dynamic process of interaction that occurs within the structure of an organization.
Multidimensional and multilevel: the organization is considered from a micro and macroscopic point of view. It is micro when it is considered within its environment (society, community, country); it is macro when analyzing its internal drives.
Multimotivational: an act can be motivated by many wishes or motives. Organizations exist because their participants hope to satisfy certain objectives through them.
Probabilistic: Modern theory tends to be probabilistic. With expressions like "in general", "may be", your variables can be explained in predictive terms and not with certainty.
Multidisciplinary - seeks concepts and techniques from many fields of study. Modern theory presents an integrative synthesis of relevant parts from all fields.
Descriptive: seek to describe the characteristics of organizations and administration. It is content to seek and understand organizational phenomena and leave the choice of objectives and methods to the individual.
Multivariate: You tend to assume that an event can be caused by numerous interrelated and interdependent factors. Causal factors could be generated by feedback.
Adaptive: a system is adaptive. The organization must adapt to changes in the environment to survive. As a result, a focus on results is generated instead of emphasis on the process or activities of the organization.
Integrative and abstract character of systems theory
TS is considered too abstract and conceptual, therefore difficult to apply to practical managerial situations. Although it has great applicability, its systematic approach is basically an understandable general theory, covering all organizational phenomena. It is a general theory of organizations and administration, an integrative synthesis.
The synergistic effect of organizations as open systems
A strong cause for the existence of organizations is their synergistic effect, that is, the sum of the inputs may differ in quantity or quality in the result of an organization. The word synergy comes from the Greek (syn = with and ergos = work) and means joint work. Each participant in the organization expects that the personal benefits of their participation will be greater than their personal costs of participation. There is synergy when two or more causes, acting together, produce an effect greater than the sum of the effects they would produce acting individually.
The functional man
TS is based on the theory of functional man. The individual plays a role within the organization, interacting with other individuals, as an open system. In his role-based actions, he maintains expectations regarding the role of others and sends his expectations to others. That interaction alters or reinforces the role. Organizations are role systems, in which individuals act as role transmitters and organizers.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
- Chiavenato, Idalberto. Introduction to the General Theory of Administration. 3rd. Edition. Edit. McGraw-Hill. 1992 Von Bertalanffy, Ludwig. General systems theory. Petrópolis, Vozes. 1976.
