Ethics ask for reimbursement! To the academy, to the company and to society
Summary
Personal and business behavior in the business world has taken an unusual course in recent years that exceeds the voracity of investors to obtain maximum profitability, and the most representative principles and values of the company have been set aside. human dignity; it is necessary to insist once again on the recovery of behaviors centered on ethics, morals and social responsibility, vital factors when seeking greater competitiveness.
Keywords: Corruption. Decision. Ethics, Moral. Business. Values.
The scandalous panorama that is offered in the world from cases of corruption, unfair competition, disinformation, bribery, the culture of the "bite" and other evils, in which rulers, managers, advisers, religious, military, police, judges, prosecutors, merchants, publicists, bankers, workers, domestic workers, athletes, lotteries, etc., are questioned for their actions classified as unethical and despite having spent so much ink, paper, time, and many more megabytes occupied, in the functions of describing, graphing, documenting, commenting, analyzing, discerning, accusing, debating, pointing out ad nauseam, the situation is getting worse, because no corrective actions are taken and after the traditional "exhaustive investigation", the thing remains there, without anything happening to end that scourge of humanity,perhaps because those who are responsible for imposing sanctions and applying corrections are usually also involved.
These repetitive behaviors are generally fostered by an interest in obtaining money, influence, position, power, prestige, stability and anything that can lead to raising the ego of the person who lends himself to committing acts against morality, favoring sullen interests, damaging his conscience, his moral judgment, and even his integrity, thereby harming the institutions, the State, society and his own family.
It is not a question of proposing here that all human beings act in accordance with the thinking of one person, nor that they should all behave in the same way, or that they act at the whim of someone in particular; What is proposed is that, as far as possible, humanity submits to previously codified, systematized and standardized norms of conduct, which are applied in the world legal order, that principles, values, beliefs, convictions are put into practice, which Today they frame the possibility of being happy, of understanding the other, of giving and receiving what is fair and in due proportion; to respect private intellectual and physical property, to carry out solidarity actions in favor of the less favored, to develop human sensitivity to disasters that occur in various parts of the world,in sharing what little or much you have with those who have the most needs, in thinking of themselves more as people and not so much as asset accumulating machines, in having what is necessary to live with dignity but not ambition until you lose your reason and tranquility by competing with the neighbor, in admiring the beauty and good of others without feeling envy, abandoning selfishness and being willing to give in so that others can enjoy what can no longer be enjoyed.abandon selfishness and be willing to give in so that others can enjoy what can no longer be enjoyed.abandon selfishness and be willing to give in so that others can enjoy what can no longer be enjoyed.
Even when in the academic environment the convenience of integrally training professionals who help the development of nations is raised with moderate insistence, it has been argued that perhaps "the great sin of the Western university has been the abandonment of the study of the humanities, particularly of ethics, for the sake of magnification of an alleged scientism. The study of philosophy has come to be replaced by that of science »1. This assertion is based on some study plans where the subject of ethics does not appear and when, luckily it is included, it is there inserted in areas that for the student in general, are not the most "hard" and therefore Therefore, they do not deserve the greatest attention for their career; if not, I invite you to do a simple test:survey a group of management students to see to what extent they have a clear notion of what professional ethics means in their area of training; I am sure that a minority will have some slight information, but, if instead, they are asked about the usefulness of the subjects of the technical or scientific areas, the number of acceptable answers will be greater.
The authors of administration and finance texts insist that "to know if a business decision generates profitability, the first thing to know is what it consists of and how profitability is created in the company".2 In these books, nowhere The need to act in accordance with ethics and morality does not appear by mistake, that is, that for the author, profitability must be achieved at any price and in any way, regardless of how it is obtained, who harms or what means are used against the State, society and competition. You can also find expressions such as the following: “Most people are interested in money in one way or another. Money, and therefore finances, are an integral part of life. Understanding finances can empower you,it can help you use your money efficiently and it can even help you earn more money. ”3 This approach is no less insinuating for people to reaffirm their cumulative desire without heeding even the slightest standard of ethical conduct.
It has also been reflected on whether, one of the functions that determine the raison d'être of university institutions is to prepare the future professional to lead organizations in the coming years, the question that arises is: why be amazed of the corrupt behaviors of professionals from different disciplines, if one takes into account that during the university training process they were never told about professional ethics and much less about the moral conduct that they should practice, once they graduated from the respective faculty, in their performance at the service of society ?. This may be a justification for professionals at the service of the new world economic order,act with detachment from the old values that were practiced for years in traditional family organizations, and do not take into account in their decisions or in their actions even a trace of ethical rationing.
In some societies, as is the case of the people who occupy the territory of the United States of North America today, the concern to re-include in academic programs a component that leads to reinstate the importance of education has become evident lately. ethics in careers for the training of professionals in higher education; The eagerness aroused is curious, at the same time that scandals of global repercussion have been uncovered, affecting a wide sector of humanity, notable from the decisions of the highest governmental summit, through the main business executives to representatives of groups of religious character.
But why leave that responsibility solely to the academy and do not start training in ethics and morals much earlier? For example, from the moment the person is born, as they learn to speak, they begin to reason, to be aware, within the home itself, learning that generally comes from the example of adults who live with him or her. Although, on occasions, it happens that it would have been preferable not to learn that culture, because that is where anti-values are cultivated, such as: the ability to lie, in the sense of asking whoever answers that they are not, so as not to pass to the telephone when the call is to collect an account, or fulfill a previously acquired commitment, or from a person with whom you do not wish to speak; It is also common to appear situations of solvency, of excellence, of prestige,cleaning, order or disorder, especially in the face of visits from strangers to the home, when the best tablecloths, cutlery and new dishes are put, the living room and dining room furniture are used, while, on a daily basis, residents only they can use the kitchen side dining room, the chipped plate, the crooked spoon and the earless bowl. They are just some of the vices typical of our Latino culture, and that mark the individual for life, with very few exceptions.the crooked spoon and the earless cup. They are just some of the vices typical of our Latino culture, and that mark the individual for life, with very few exceptions.the crooked spoon and the earless cup. They are just some of the vices typical of our Latino culture, and that mark the individual for life, with very few exceptions.
"Professional mysticism" is described as a way of acting that is consistent with the set of moral values that a person has assimilated throughout his life. Personal mystique comes from the family, in the process of upbringing, where ancestral values are incorporated and personality traits are configured, they extend to the educational institution and then to professional practice. The academy forms, at all levels, from preschool to postgraduate level, in the sense of helping to develop competencies from the learning of skills, systematized knowledge, techniques, concepts, tools and methods of science, so that the professional future, once your training process is completed, go out to the market to perform your job,to contribute with their potential to generate the changes that the world requires, to improve the way of life of humanity, carrying with them the imprint of their faculty, which is more of a conventional type, distinctive because of the thought that identifies the philosophy of a program, a faculty, a union of graduates, of the respective school that is associated with the family or community, united by bonds of fraternity, which usually last a lifetime.
If during their training process, the professional has internalized the principles of ethics and morals, they will surely be enabled to, in conscience, distinguish between what is right and what is wrong, right and wrong, good and bad, what is convenient and what is inconvenient, what hurts and what does not hurt, so that you can freely choose and make a decision based on humanly rational arguments; Only your moral reasoning will allow you to qualify the quality of the decision in a moral sense, whose responsibility you will know how to accept and will eliminate any feeling of guilt in the face of events that may arise from your own resolution.
In this sense, Peter Drucker states: "What shocks young graduates is that top executives do not feel entitled to act in accordance with their consciences"… "Is Business Letting Young People Down" 4, schoolboys strongly disapprove of it. they perceive as a lack of integrity of the company man, but, on the other hand, many college students occasionally cheat during exams. One wonders: how can these students explain such apparent inconsistency? Are your temptations more severe than those of businessmen? Do you consider the lack of ethics in academic matters less reprehensible than in economic ones? And if so, why? 5 It is common for there to be inconsistency between what a person says they think or do and what they actually think and do,it is a characteristic of mankind, to describe oneself, in the way that best favors oneself.
While ethical behavior is based on the scale of values that a society has internalized in a specific environment, values are considered as those statements that reflect crystal clear of what is critically important for one, through ethics those values they take the form of acts, which in the opinion of whoever analyzes them, from the moral point of view, can become correct or incorrect.
Ethics is a word derived from the Greek ethos, which means custom or character, it is also often called "moral philosophy, part of the philosophy that studies the morality of human acts in terms of result and in terms of act." 6
Ethics is also defined as “the activity of examining one's own moral standards or society's moral standards, and asking how they apply to our lives and whether they are reasonable or unreasonable, that is, whether they are supported by good or bad reasons. ”7 But, for Aristotle, founder of the concept, ethics“ is based on the purpose of human action, it allows us to choose according to an end that is my good; because I am capable of voluntary operations aimed at happiness. It is the ethics of responsibility that implies respect for others and cooperation… Hence the notion of the common good. »8
For others, "ethics is the study of moral obligations or the discernment between good and evil" 9 this definition of Aristotelian court, is simpler and links with the notion of morality: "it is a term that despite having a common origin with the term ethics in its usual meaning, it is applied in a broader sense than ethics inasmuch as it generally refers to everything that is not physical in man: the subjective spirit and what it produces, although this term has sometimes been opposed to intellectual, to indicate that what is moral comes from feeling while what is intellectual comes from intelligence or intellect, from reason. When the moral is subjected to a sense of value, it is the opposite of immoral and amoral,being the immoral what opposes or does not obey all value and the amoral what dispenses or is indifferent to value… »10 We could continue presenting concepts on ethics and morals, however, I will allow myself here to focus on the theme of ethics applied to an activity that interests professional managers and is ethics in the business world.
In the language of management, business ethics has been viewed as the specialized study of morally right and wrong; it is emphasized in the norms of moral content as they directly affect the set of policies, organizations and the performance of the business units; It also focuses its attention on how the aforementioned moral norms are used in the processes of production and distribution of goods and services, and the way in which their effects are received by the human talent placed at the service of such organizations.
Ethics, important for all people, is also extended to the world of the company, in each decision that is adopted there is an ethics content, whether it is aspects related to personnel administration in relation to the relationship, promotion, promotion or retirement; in negotiations with clients; deals with suppliers; relations with trade union organizations; delegation of functions and authority; creation of a new product or service; presentation of a report; carrying out a procedure before public entities; participation in a contest; request for a loan; among many other cases, there will, of course, always be content of an ethical nature.
It has been determined that the most influential entities in contemporary society are economic institutions, designed for the production and distribution of goods and services that society demands; These economic units autonomously decide who to take charge of production, organize the work, how many and what type of resources to apply and the distribution channels for products and services. Large corporations are the most powerful in the world today, as they are endowed by law, with special rights and powers, a hundred of these in the United States, control approximately 50% of the income and, therefore, of the total of utilities.
The administrations of these large and complex businesses establish general rules for the entire organization, which serve as a link between all individuals, in order to achieve corporate goals; To the extent that the worker conforms to the rules, the objective will be met, even at the expense of
That the individual worker ignores what the expected results are, that is how, one talks about corporate matters in business ethics, aspects that originate within a particular company, with respect to moral practice in their actions, policies and its own organizational structure; Likewise, it speaks of the ethics of a member of the organization, in terms of the morality of their particular decisions within the company. This close relationship between the conception of an individual's ethics and ethics in a corporate context cannot be separated and this is where it is important to insist on the ethical and moral formation of the individual.
The company is a legal person, that is, a subject with rights and duties, which has responsibility and autonomy, develops its business action in a specific context, which is called the business environment. People and companies are beings that live in a process of realization, they are beings making themselves, in constant evolution, with capacity for continuous and permanent learning, they are not finished products. This helps to reflect on the need to observe reality, its impact on one's life, how to assimilate change and improve every day not only in personal interest but also thinking about the social benefit, now and in the future.
It is presumed that it is precisely the identification of the corporate ethics - personal ethics link that has motivated the board of directors of corporations and university institutions oriented towards the business world to become increasingly interested in graduates of professional training programs in the areas of business administration, incorporate into their study plans a strong component of business ethics and social responsibility, tending to generate moral awareness and environmental management, so that the future professional develop their action in a moral sense with the highest standards, which are currently the main arguments that typify the greater competitiveness of organizations, before clients, suppliers, sources of financing,the State and the community in general.
Ethics is considered as a powerful source of competitive advantages, this is how companies that are at the forefront in the market have understood it, now
that the trend at the global level is to act with transparency and that with the development of tools for democratization and social mobilization such as the Internet, large corporations base their business action on a corporate ethic, through which the best talents are attracted and, incidentally, a greater number of clients are obtained.
It is through ethical behavior and based on example, that acts of corruption that cause serious damage to social and economic systems can be reduced; It is therefore necessary to promote the corporate value system to generate culture, so that the individuals that make up the organizations contribute more ethical elements to the business, since the most valuable business asset that exists today is human capital, which People are worth for what they are and therefore deserve the highest importance and the highest respect; When organizations understand this and apply the five basic values: equality, freedom, dialogue, respect and solidarity, they will have greater strengths to face the competition in the years to come.11
However, it is convenient to comment that ethical behavior does not guarantee the definitive solution of all problems, that it is not the key to achieving the highest percentage of profit, but, certainly, unethical behavior less, and what is worse, it can cause huge losses.
When inquiring about ethics in the company, it is necessary to give importance to the identification of the postulates, determinants of the achievement of the objectives linked to sustainable development, sections of manipulative maneuvers and momentary favors. Be clear that the ultimate goal should not be to win more than the competition or at the expense of the competitors, but to win everything that is possible, the result of which is the product of a planning framed in generosity. The famous win-win strategy is a fist of truth, but it is not practiced or applied very often.
A good demonstration of responsibility must be to understand that in the environment there are different fields for the game of different
sports, each one with all its universal rules and that, regardless of the sport that is played, it must be practiced with respect and dignity., recognition and with the greatest spirit and desire to excel.12
Business ethics is related to truth and justice and has various aspects, such as societal expectations, fair competition, advertising, public relations, social responsibilities, consumer autonomy, and corporate conduct. in their country of origin as well as abroad.13 In this context, it is possible to affirm that business ethics encompasses the entire environment with which the company interacts for the development of its business action in a way that generates credibility, loyalty and respect, as well as recognition for their values-centered performance.
Dominique Hoestland, a well-known business man, points out: «ethical interrogation is the necessary way to find answers to the contradictions of morals, of logic and of facts; to clarify difficult arbitrations and, in the limit, to serve as a guide in elections «à la Corneille» between opposing imperatives ».14
Michel Le Net, defines business ethics in the form of an equation: Ethics = Efficiency + Deontology, conceptualization consistent with Aristotle's definition. Ethics is the art of long-term success, which supposes, on the one hand, one's own good (in business, efficiency), but only with respect for others (deontology). Respect for others naturally implies respect for the law and the basic principles of universal morality.15
The European Business Ethic NetWork EBEN defines: business ethics as a reflection on business practices in which the norms and values of individuals, companies and society are implied.16 But it must be understood that ethics does not It is only a problem of definitions, but the ideal is the correct approach to the multiplicity of problems related to honest behavior in business, which do not have previous solutions and therefore, it is necessary to investigate to apply the best decision.
Today's society requires companies to balance the ethical or moral positions of the members of the organization, understood as the ethics of the company, who assume their role as a valid interlocutor and exercise it responsibly. It gives the impression that in a world characterized by highly commercialized structures, society has found a way towards humanization, in the behavior and ethical and moral commitment of its agents.
Living companies, that is, those that survive competitive war for many years, are those that have made an effort to create and spread among all their members a culture centered on ethical and moral values, in such a way that they obtain and maintain the acceptance of the client, consumer or user, that they receive what is promised, in terms of quality, quantity, opportunity and in balance with the price they pay for acquiring the product or using the service.
It is not enough to have good people in companies, it is also necessary for managers to clearly express what they expect to receive from their collaborators with regard to ethics and provide them with useful and easy-to-remember tools to turn to. As permanent reference material, these practices improve the decision-making process and the feeling of belonging of the employees.
Business managers face many situations that require ethical judgment, and the answers are often not easy. Managers, and particularly those at the highest level, have a responsibility to create an organizational environment that encourages ethical decision-making by institutionalizing ethics. This means applying and integrating ethical concepts into daily action. Theodore Purcell and James Weber suggest that this can be accomplished in three ways:
• Establishing an appropriate company policy or code of ethics. • Using a formally created ethics committee. • Teaching ethics in management development programs.
The most common way to institutionalize ethics is by establishing a code of ethics; less frequent is the use of ethics council committees. Management development programs that have ethical issues are very rarely used. 17
Unethical conduct by business people has international repercussions, they are people who have difficulties to act ethically and face the complexity of their own ethical dilemmas. Public interest in business ethics is sparked at the urging of unethical practices and their wide dissemination by the media.18
It is convenient to reflect on the fact that money does not justify everything in life; is an important factor of production but it is not the only one, to the extent that it is understood that profit is not the only purpose of the company, there will be greater possibilities of adapting to the new world of business, where other reasons appear for entrepreneurs such as such as survival, that is, staying in the market, even at lower than usual earnings.
Often there are dilemmas19 to celebrate a commitment: choosing between what is right to do and what needs to be done; In this sense, it is advisable to reflect on the incidents of the decision, so that human dignity, nor the values of ethics and morals are not ignored or violated.
It is understood that the business function requires the business man to protect his business, in this direction it must also be understood that it is the task of society to ensure social justice, so that the company as such, obtains what it needs. It corresponds according to his action and not the personal ambition of the businessman, individually considered.
Although the business world is a game where all kinds of players compete, and most of those in business play to win and make a profit, it will be unethical to accept the statement that: "to the degree that there are people affected, sooner or later the government will protect it »20. Nor does Theodore Lewitt's statement, according to which: the businessman exists for a single purpose: to create and deliver satisfactions of value, with a utility for himself. If what you offer can be sold at a profit, then it is legitimate. The spiritual and moral consequences of the actions of the businessman are something that should not matter to him.21 Likewise, it is considered unethical to try to obtain maximum profits without restraint,that the executives of a corporation act in the sole interest of the shareholders and not also in the interest of the employees and the consumer; Perhaps the best criterion to judge how important ethics is for a person is how much sacrifice it costs them - in terms of position, money, time and energy - to act ethically.
It has also been suggested that a kind of moral Darwinism prevails in world trade, where the least ethical companies eventually die. This may be true in industries where the ordinary buyer can easily identify the quality of the product, or where the pattern consists of frequent repeat sales. But it is utopian to think that moral Darwinism predominates in industries where economic competition is a very powerful force. This is by no means a denial that good ethics is usually good business in the long run.22
It is clear that a business man is, has been and will be, above all, a man, before being a manager, and “the more ethical, reasonable and humane he is, the better he will be as a man and as a manager”.23 Leaders with these characteristics have shown that ethics is a determining factor in the smooth running of a business and that expected profits come as a result of a process focused on corporate values and not profits as the sole purpose.
The ethical dilemmas of the deepest concern for the company man are the problems related to personnel; however, unfair competitive practices such as price discrimination or collision, bribery, and dishonesty in advertising or contracts are more frequently engaged in. The businessman believes that good ethics is good business in the long run, especially when it comes to employee and customer relationships. Most employers feel that they have the same ethical standards at home and at work, but that it is more difficult to live up to such standards in the office, due to strong competitive pressures.
The golden rule: "do not do to another what you do not want others to do to you", although useful as a starting point, it is inadequate as a rule for solving most ethical problems in trade; Managers generally become more ethical as they age, in part because of their greater financial security. The businessman, like all human beings, must do good and avoid evil, since certain general ethical standards are applicable to commercial activities. There are, however, certain acts that are of special or unique concern in business, and the specific problems and opportunities faced by the businessman differ from those faced by politicians, for example, or the doctor. The study of the object, the intention, the circumstances and the result of these actions,Whether it is right or wrong falls within the domain of business ethics. The number and importance of such acts justifies the existence of that special field of study called business ethics.24
For the community at large, the image of the businessman includes the notion that he is relatively unethical; the student's opinion is even less favorable. This is significant, since many students choose their
lifelong occupation, based in large part on the image they have formed of it. An example is the following statement: "Most business organizations aim to make as much money as they can, no matter who gets hurt." 25 The popular image of business ethics, especially held by students, seems be plagued with prejudices; it probably gives insufficient weight to the many responsible decisions made by managers.
In this regard, executive Philip Sporn has stated: “The judgment of some of our best young talents is affected by a sense of distrust towards business as a way of life, particularly because it may not allow a concordance between the ethical standards of business. and the ethics of life. ”26 When a company gains a reputation that its actions are focused on ethical conduct, it has fewer requests from third parties to act unethically; Likewise, when an individual's own position on ethical things becomes known, they face fewer temptations and the people around them will get used to the idea that they will not tolerate dishonesty or lies, so they are taken there decisions in accordance with the principles established by senior management.
In cases in which a businessman acts ethically, he attributes his behavior to his own ability to resist pressure and temptations, he partially gives credit to his superiors and to company policies; Likewise, when he acts unethically, he blames his superiors and the climate of his industry, that is, he avoids responsibility, an even more reprehensible attitude, typical of some demagogic politicians who never accept their mistakes or show a willingness to face trial social and much less the criminal process that corresponds to their conduct.
Large companies that have survived for more than 100 years, such as Procter & Gamble, IBM, Singer Sewing Machine Company, among many others, and based on research by Professors Learned, Doley and Katz27 where they analyze the idea of that good ethics is good business in the long run, and they suggest that businessmen's reasons for supporting this concept fit into three categories:
- A company that behaves in accordance with ethics induces others to behave ethically with it.Ethical conduct is a form of insurance against acts of retaliation.A good man who constantly tries to be ethical in some way always exceeds and defeats his immoral or amoral colleague.
Maintaining a good brand and product image in the market, accompanied by an attitude focused on ethics and morals, ensures competitive advantages and everyone will want to do business with a company with such characteristics. Bad ethics can produce results that damage the quality of the income level and deteriorate profitability, due to the deterioration of the corporate image and after earning a bad name, no one will want to have dealings with that company, at the risk of damaging their own reputation. Sooner or later, the government, public opinion, employees and other members of the company itself and the other people or members of the companies with whom the conduct or unethical treatment is carried out, will realize the situation and the consequences they will not be mild.
In the business world, all commercial decisions are made by the people in charge of that responsibility, if they are not ethical, such decisions can affect other people. If the affected people, such as clients, suppliers, employees, shareholders, lenders, etc., know who the person who made the decision is, they will be reluctant to make future deals with that person, as well as with the company that it represents and will refer negatively to all who can.
Bad business experiences are always remembered more easily than good experiences. This statement is generally true, in regard to unethical treatment or when treatment is unfair or violates one's dignity; When this happens, an instinctive disapproval is automatically presented, which will mark the past and motivated by an immense self-love, the human being will never be willing to do business with a company or individual that has mistreated him; On the other hand, if you have perceived the satisfaction that you have been treated with justice and respect for your human condition, you will surely be more willing to negotiate again with the same person or company, if the conditions do not change significantly.
A bad experience is shared with twenty or more interlocutors, while good experiences are only discussed with two or three of the best friends.
Consequently, it can be stated that, in general, people respond favorably to a company or individual that offers a treatment based on respect and consideration for their human dignity, that is the main reason why good ethics, in the long run, It is a good business. "Ethical behavior is the best long-term business strategy for a company" 28. This does not necessarily mean that ethics do not have a cost, or that unethical behavior also has its rewards, what is meant is that in the long term, most of the time, ethical behavior can provide advantages to a company important competitive risks over companies that are unethical.
Society needs professionals who live their profession as a vocation of service, faithful to the oath they offered on the solemnity of their graduation, remember that there was a great leader who preached: I came to serve, not to be served, this example should be assimilated as a way of life, only through such people will it be possible to moralize the business world. In order for professional managers to persevere in the path they have chosen, it is recommended that they seek support from people who are willing to share their own values and ethical principles. Ethics is a determining factor for the success of any type of activity, whether the business administrator plays the role of entrepreneur, consultant, advisor, employee, or public servant,You will be positively recognized for your decisions and actions, if they are always focused on ethics and morals.
Therefore, future professional administrators are recommended to take seriously the moral aspects and social implications of decision-making in organizations from now on. In your career and on the job, you need to consider more than simply meeting performance expectations as a critical task. Performance goals must always be achieved through ethical and socially responsible actions.
Finally, we bring to mind the following caveat, which is applicable to managers everywhere:
“You are people with power. You can make this world a better place where business decisions and methods take into account right and wrong, as well as profitability… You must take a position on important issues: the environment and ecology, sexual harassment, racism and discrimination based on gender, the arms race, poverty, the obligations of the affluent Western world to its less fortunate sisters and brothers in other parts of the world. " 29 Desmond Tutu, Archbishop of Capetown, South Africa.
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2 LOPEZ LUBIÁN, Francisco J., Business decisions and common sense, Madrid: Mc Graw Hill, 2003, p. xv.
3 EMERY, Douglas, R., FINNERTY, John D. Corporate Financial Management. Mexico: 2000, Pearson, p. two.
4 Harvard Business Review November - December 1965, p. 54. (ib. P. 43).
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6 MARTINEZ ECHEVERRY, Leonor, MARTINEZ ECHEVERRY, Hugo, Dictionary of philosophy, Bogotá: Panamericana, 1997. p. 184.
7 VELASQUEZ, Manuel G., Ethics in business, Mexico: Pearson, p. 10.
8 LA ROUCHEFOUCAULD, Bernar de, quoted by GÉLINIER, Octave, In: Ethics in business. Mexico: Limusa, 2000. p. 44.
9 DUBRIN, Andrew, Fundamentals of Administration, Mexico: 2000, Thomson, p.56.
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17 KOONTZ Harold, WEIHRICH, Heinz. Administration elements. Mexico: Mac Graw Hill, fifth edition 1999. p. 9.
18 BAUMHART, Raymond SJ, Business Ethics. México: Diana, first edition, 1978. Page 15. (book library Universidad Javeriana 650.69 B18 Ex. 1).
19 Dilemma: Argument formed by two opposing disjunctive propositions, in such a way that, denied or granted either of the two, it is demonstrated what is tried to prove (Dictionary of grammar and verbs language, Bogotá: Edit, 2000, p. 225)
20 ib. p. 103.
21 ib. p. 104.
22 Ib. p. 315
23 Ib. p. 317.
24 BAUMHART, Raymond SJ Ethics in Business. Mexico: Diana, first edition, 1978. p. 39.
25 Purchasing Week. July 3, 1961, p. 10.
26 Committee for Economic Development, Educating Tomorrow's Managers, New York, October 1964, p. 54.
27 ib. p. 86
28 VELASQUEZ, Manuel G., Ethics in business, concepts and cases. Mexico: Pearson Education. 2000, p. VIII.
29 SCHEMERHJORN, John R. Jr., Administration. Mexico: Limusa, 2003, p. 116.
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