INTRODUCTION
Organizational theory and administrative practice have undergone substantial changes in recent years. The information provided by the management and behavioral sciences has enriched traditional theory. These research and conceptualization efforts have sometimes led to divergent discoveries. However, an approach emerged that can serve as the basis for achieving convergence, the systems approach, which facilitates the unification of many fields of knowledge. This approach has been used by the physical, biological and social sciences, as a frame of reference for the integration of modern organizational theory.
The first speaker of the General Theory of Systems was Ludwing von Bertalanffy, in the attempt to achieve an integrative methodology for the treatment of scientific problems.
The goal of General Systems Theory is not to seek analogies between the sciences, but to try to avoid the scientific superficiality that has stalled the sciences. For this, it uses as an instrument, usable and transferable models between various scientific continents, provided that such extrapolation is possible and integrable to the respective disciplines.
The General Theory of Systems is based on two basic pillars: semantic contributions and methodological contributions, to which I refer in the next few pages.
SEMANTIC CONTRIBUTIONS
The successive specializations of the sciences force the creation of new words, these accumulate during successive specializations, almost forming a true language that is only handled by specialists.
In this way, problems arise when dealing with interdisciplinary projects, since the project participants are specialists from different branches of science and each one of them handles a different semantics from the others.
The Theory of Systems, to solve these problems, aims to introduce a scientific semantics of universal use.
System:
It is an organized set of interacting and interdependent things or parts, which are related to form a unitary and complex whole.
It should be clarified that the things or parts that make up the system do not refer to the physical field (objects), but rather to the functional one. In this way things or parts become basic functions performed by the system. We can list them in: inputs, processes and outputs.
Tickets:
The inputs are the income of the system that can be material resources, human resources or information.
The inputs constitute the starting force that supplies the system with its operational needs.
The inputs can be:
- Serial: it is the result or the output of a previous system with which the system under study is directly related.
- random: that is, random, where the term "random" is used in the statistical sense. Random entries represent potential inputs for a system.
- feedback: it is the reintroduction of a part of the outputs of the system itself.
Classification extracted from chair note.
Process:
The process is what transforms an input into an output, as such it can be a machine, an individual, a computer, a chemical product, a task performed by a member of the organization, etc.
In the transformation of inputs into outputs we must always know how that transformation is carried out. The processor can often be designed by the administrator. In such a case, this process is called a "white box." However, in most situations the process by which inputs are transformed into outputs is not fully known, because this transformation is too complex. Different combinations of inputs or their combination in different order of sequence can give rise to different output situations. In such a case the process function is called a "black box".
Black Box:
The black box is used to represent systems when we do not know what elements or things make up the system or process, but we know that certain outputs correspond to certain outputs and thereby be able to induce, assuming that certain stimuli, the variables will work in a certain sense.
Departures:
The outputs of the systems are the results obtained from processing the inputs. Like inputs, these can take the form of products, services and information. They are the result of the operation of the system or, alternatively, the purpose for which the system exists.
The outputs of one system become the input of another, which will process it into another output, repeating this cycle indefinitely.
Relations:
Relationships are the links that link together the objects or subsystems that make up a complex system.
We can classify them in:
- Symbiotic: it is one in which the connected systems cannot continue to function alone. In turn, it can be subdivided into unipolar or parasitic, which is when one system (parasite) cannot live without the other system (plant); and bipolar or mutual, which is when both systems depend on each other.
- Synergic: it is a relationship that is not necessary for operation but that is useful, since its performance substantially improves the performance of the system. Synergy means "combined action." However, for systems theory the term means something more than cooperative effort. In synergistic relationships the cooperative action of semi-independent subsystems, taken together, produces a total product greater than the sum of their products taken independently.
- Superfluous: They are those that repeat other relationships. The reason for superfluous relationships is reliability. Superfluous relationships increase the probability that a system works all the time and not a part of it. These relationships have a problem that is their cost, which is added to the cost of the system that can function without them.
Classification obtained from chair note.
Attributes:
The attributes of the systems define the system as we know or observe it. Attributes can be defining or concomitant: defining attributes are those without which an entity would not be designated or defined as it is; the concomitant attributes, on the other hand, are those whose presence or absence does not establish any difference with respect to the use of the term that describes the unit.
Context:
A system will always be related to the context that surrounds it, that is, the set of objects outside the system, but which decisively influence it, and in turn the system influences, although to a lesser extent, it influences the context; it is a mutual context-system relationship.
Both in Systems Theory and in the scientific method, there is a concept that is common to both: the focus of attention, the element that is isolated to study.
The context to be analyzed depends fundamentally on the focus of attention that is set. That focus of attention, in systems terms, is called the limit of interest.
To determine this limit, two separate stages would be considered:
a) Determination of the context of interest.
b) The determination of the scope of the limit of interest between the context and the system.
a) It is usually represented as a circle that encloses the system, and leaves the part of the context that does not interest the analyst outside the limit of interest.
d) Regarding the relationships between the context and the systems and vice versa. It is possible that only some of these relationships are of interest, so there will be a limit of relational interest.
Determining the limit of interest is essential to mark the focus of analysis, since only what is within that limit will be considered.
Between the system and the context, determined with a limit of interest, there are infinite relationships. Generally, not all are taken, but only those that are of interest to the analysis, or those that probabilistically present the best scientific prediction characteristics.
Rank:
In the universe there are different structures of systems and it is possible to exercise a process of definition of relative rank in them. This would produce a ranking of the different structures based on their degree of complexity.
Each rank or hierarchy clearly marks a dimension that acts as a clear indicator of the differences that exist between the respective subsystems.
This conception denotes that a level 1 system is different from another level 8 and that, consequently, the same models or analogous methods cannot be applied at the risk of committing obvious methodological and scientific fallacies.
To apply the concept of range, the focus of attention must be used alternatively: the context and its level of range are considered or the system and its level of range are considered.
Referring to the ranges, it is necessary to establish the different subsystems. Each system can be divided into parts based on a common element or based on a logical method of detection.
The concept of rank indicates the hierarchy of the respective subsystems among themselves and their level of relationship with the larger system.
Subsystems:
In the same definition of system, reference is made to the subsystems that compose it, when it is indicated that it is made up of parts or things that make up the whole.
These sets or parts can in turn be systems (in this case they would be subsystems of the definition system), since they make up a whole in themselves and these would be of a lower rank than the system they compose.
These subsystems form or compose a system of a higher rank, which for the former is called a macrosystem.
Variables:
Each system and subsystem contains an internal process that develops on the basis of the action, interaction and reaction of different elements that must necessarily be known.
Since this process is dynamic, each element that makes up or exists within systems and subsystems is usually referred to as a variable.
But not everything is as easy as it seems at first glance since not all variables have the same behavior but, on the contrary, depending on the process and its characteristics, they assume different behaviors within the same process according to the moment and the circumstances surrounding them.
Parameter:
One of the behaviors that a variable can have is that of a parameter, which is when a variable does not have changes under some specific circumstance, it does not mean that the variable is static far from it, since it only remains inactive or static in the face of a situation determined.
Operators:
Another behavior is that of the operator, which are the variables that activate the others and manage to decisively influence the process so that it starts. It can be said that these variables act as leaders of the rest and therefore are privileged with respect to the other variables. Here is a clarification: the remaining variables are not only influenced by the operators, but they are also influenced by the rest of the variables and these also have an influence on the operators.
Feedback:
Feedback occurs when the outputs of the system or the influence of the outputs of the systems in the context, re-enter the system as resources or information.
The feedback allows the control of a system and that it takes corrective measures based on the feedback information.
Feed-forward or forward feed:
It is a form of control of the systems, where said control is carried out at the entrance of the system, in such a way that it does not have corrupt or bad entries, in this way as there are no bad entries in the system, failures will not be a consequence of the inputs but of the processes themselves that make up the system.
Homeostasis and entropy:
Homeostasis is the property of a system that defines its level of response and adaptation to the context.
It is the level of permanent adaptation of the system or its tendency to dynamic survival. Highly homeostatic systems undergo structural transformations to the same extent that the context undergoes transformations, both of which act as conditioning factors for the level of evolution.
The entropy of a system is the wear that the system presents over time or due to its operation. Highly entropic systems tend to disappear due to the wear generated by their systemic process. They must have rigorous control systems and mechanisms for review, reworking and permanent change, to avoid their disappearance over time.
In a closed system the entropy must always be positive. However, in open biological or social systems, entropy can be reduced or even better transformed into negative entropy, that is, a more complete organization process and capacity to transform resources. This is possible because in open systems the resources used to reduce the entropy process are taken from the external environment. Likewise, living systems remain in a stable state and can avoid increasing entropy and even develop into states of increasing order and organization.
Permeability:
The permeability of a system measures the interaction it receives from the environment, it is said that the greater or lesser permeability of the system it will be more or less open.
Systems that are closely related to the environment in which they develop are highly permeable systems, these and those with medium permeability are called open systems.
On the contrary, systems with almost zero permeability are called closed systems.
Integration and independence:
An integrated system is called one in which its level of internal coherence causes a change in any of its subsystems to produce changes in the other subsystems and even in the system itself.
A system is independent when a change that occurs in it does not affect other systems.
Centralization and decentralization:
A system is said to be centralized when it has a nucleus that commands all the others, and these depend for their activation on the first, since by themselves they are not capable of generating any process.
On the contrary, decentralized systems are those where the command and decision nucleus is made up of several subsystems. In this case, the system is not so dependent, but may have subsystems that act as backup and that only come into operation when the system that should act in that case fails.
Centralized systems are more easily controlled than decentralized ones, they are more compliant, they require fewer resources, but they are slower to adapt to the context. On the contrary, decentralized systems have a greater speed of response to the environment but require more resources and more elaborate and complex coordination and control methods.
Adaptability:
It is the property that a system has of learning and modifying a process, a state or a characteristic according to the modifications that the context undergoes. This is achieved through an adaptation mechanism that allows responding to internal and external changes over time.
For a system to be adaptable, it must have a fluid exchange with the environment in which it develops.
Maintainability:
It is the property that has a system to keep constantly running. To do this, it uses a maintenance mechanism that ensures that the different subsystems are balanced and that the total system remains in balance with its environment.
Stability:
A system is said to be stable when it can be kept in equilibrium through the continuous flow of materials, energy and information.
The stability of the systems occurs as long as they can maintain their operation and work effectively (maintainability).
Harmony:
It is the property of the systems that measures the level of compatibility with their environment or context.
A highly harmonic system is one that undergoes modifications in its structure, process or characteristics to the extent that the environment demands it and is static when the environment is also static.
Optimization and sub-optimization:
Optimization modify the system to achieve the achievement of objectives.
Sub-optimization, on the other hand, is the reverse process, it occurs when a system does not reach its objectives due to the restrictions of the environment or because the system has several objectives and they are exclusive, in this case the scope of the objectives must be restricted or those of less important if these are exclusive with other more important ones.
Success:
The success of systems is the extent to which they achieve their objectives.
The lack of success requires a review of the system since it does not meet the objectives proposed for it, so that said system is modified in such a way that it can achieve the determined objectives.
METHODOLOGICAL CONTRIBUTIONS
Systems hierarchy
In considering the different types of systems in the universe, Kennet Boulding provides a useful classification of systems where he establishes the following hierarchical levels:
1. First level, static structure. It can be called the level of the frames of reference.
2. Second level, simple dynamic system. Considers necessary and predetermined movements. You can call it a work clock.
3. Third level, control mechanism or cybernetic system. The system regulates itself to maintain its balance.
4. Fourth level, "open system" or self-structured. On this level it starts to diferenciate life. It can be considered cell level.
5. Fifth level, genetic-social. It is characterized by plants.
6. Sixth level, animal system. It is characterized by its increasing mobility, teleological behavior and its self-awareness.
7. Seventh level, human system. It is the level of the individual being, considered as a system with consciousness and ability to use language and symbols.
8. Eighth level, social system or system of human organizations constitutes the next level, and considers the content and meaning of messages, the nature and dimensions of the value system, the transcription of images in historical records, subtle artistic symbolizations, music, poetry and the complex range of human emotions.
9. Ninth level, transcendental systems. They complete the levels of classification: these are the last and absolute, the unavoidable and unknown, which also present systematic structures and interrelations.
Analog theory or systemic isomorphism model:
This model seeks to integrate the relationships between phenomena of the different sciences. The detection of these phenomena allows the assembly of application models for different areas of science.
This, which is constantly repeated, requires an iterative analysis that responds to the idea of modularity that systems theory develops in its contents.
It is intended by successive comparisons, a methodological approach, while facilitating the identification of the equivalent or common elements, and allowing a one-to-one correspondence between the different sciences.
As evidence that there are general properties between different systems, their structural similarities are identified and extracted.
These elements are the essence of the application of the isomorphism model, that is, the correspondence between principles that govern the behavior of objects that, although intrinsically different, in some aspects register effects that may require the same procedure.
Procedural model or complex adaptive system:
This model implies by association the previous application of the range model.
Since organizations are within level 8, it criticizes and achieves the demolition of existing models both within sociology and within administration.
Buckley, categorizes existing models into two types:
a) those of extraction and mechanical origin, which he calls the equilibrium model;
b) those of extraction and biological origin, which he calls organismic or homeostatic models.
And says:
«… the equilibrium model is applicable to types of systems that are characterized by losing organization when moving towards an equilibrium point and subsequently tend to maintain that minimum level within relatively narrow disturbances. Homeostatic models are applicable to systems that tend to maintain a relatively high level of organization despite constant tendencies to decrease it. The procedural or complex adaptive system model is applied to systems characterized by the development or evolution of the organization; as we shall see, they benefit from disturbances and the variety of the environment and in fact depend on them.
While certain systems have a natural tendency to equilibrium, level 8 systems are characterized by their morphogenic properties, that is, instead of seeking a stable equilibrium, they tend towards a permanent structural transformation. This process of permanent structural transformation constitutes the prerequisite for level 8 systems to be conserved actively and efficiently, in short it is their reason for survival.
ORGANIZATIONS AS SYSTEMS
An organization is a socio-technical system included in a broader one, which is the society with which it interacts, influencing each other.
It can also be defined as a social system, made up of individuals and work groups that respond to a certain structure and within a context that they partially control, develop activities applying resources in pursuit of certain common values.
Subsystems that make up the Company:
a) Psychosocial subsystem: it is composed of individuals and groups in interaction. This subsystem is formed by individual behavior and motivation, status and role relationships, group dynamics and systems of influence.
b) Technical subsystem: refers to the knowledge necessary for the development of tasks, including the techniques used to transform inputs into products.
c) Administrative subsystem: relates the organization to its environment and establishes objectives, develops integration, strategy and operation plans, through the design of the structure and the establishment of control processes.
METHODOLOGY OF APPLICATION OF THE TGS, FOR THE ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF SYSTEMS
From the point of view of the administration, it is composed of the following stages:
a) Situation analysis: it is the stage in which the analyst becomes aware of the system, is located in terms of its origin, objective and trajectory.
1. Definition of objective: the analyst tries to determine what it has been required for since, in general, the effects are presented but not the causes.
2. Formulation of the work plan: the analyst sets the limits of interest of the study to be carried out, the methodology to be followed, the material and human resources that will be needed, the time that the work will take and its cost. This stage is known as a service proposal and after its approval, the methodology continues.
3. Survey: the analyst collects all the information related to the system under study, as well as all the information related to the limit of interest.
4. Diagnosis: the analyst measures the effectiveness and efficiency of the system under study. Effectiveness is when the system achieves the objectives and efficiency is when the system achieves the objectives with a positive cost-benefit ratio. If a system is effective but not efficient, the analyst must change the system's methods, if a system is not effective, the analyst must change the system, and if a system is efficient, the analyst can only optimize it.
5. Design: the analyst designs the new system.
a) Global design: it determines the output, files, system inputs, makes a cost calculation and lists the procedures. The global design must be submitted for approval, the global design approved, we go to the next step.
b) Detailed design: the analyst develops in detail all of the procedures listed in the overall design and formulates the organizational structure which will be applied to said procedures.
6. Implementation: the implementation of the designed system means putting it into practice, this start-up can be done in three ways.
a) Global.
b) In phases.
c) In parallel.
7. Monitoring and control: The analyst must verify the results of the implemented system and apply the corrective actions deemed necessary to adjust the problem.
THE CONTROL SYSTEM
Concept:
A control system studies the behavior of the system in order to regulate it in a convenient way for its survival. One of its characteristics is that its elements must be sufficiently sensitive and fast to satisfy the requirements for each control function.
Core items:
a) A variable; which is the element that you want to control.
b) Sensor mechanisms that are simple to measure variations to changes in the variable.
c) The driving means through which corrective actions can be developed.
d) Power source, which delivers the energy needed for any type of activity.
e) The feedback that through the communication of the state of the variable by the sensors, it is possible to carry out the corrective actions.
Control method:
It is an alternative to reduce the amount of information received by decision-makers, while continuing to increase its informative content. The three basic ways to implement the control method are:
1.- Variation report: this form of variation requires that the data that represent the actual events be compared with others that represent the planned events, in order to determine the difference. The variation is then controlled with the control value, to determine whether or not the fact should be reported. The result of the procedure is that only those who make decisions about events or activities that deviate significantly from the plans are informed, so that they can take the necessary measures.
2.- Scheduled Decisions: another application of the control system involves the development and implementation of scheduled decisions. A significant part of the technical decisions and a small part of the tactical decisions involve repetitive and routine decisions. By designing the information system to execute those routine decisions, the analyst gives managers more time to spend on other, less structured decisions.
By ensuring that the system monitors pending orders and scheduling decisions on which orders need more attention, significant savings in time and effort will be achieved.
3.- Automatic notification: in this case, the system as such does not make decisions, but as it monitors the general flow of information, it can provide data, when necessary and at the specified time.
Automatic notifications are made on some predetermined criteria, but only the decision maker should say whether or not any action is necessary.
The Control System in Organizations:
Control is one of the five corporate subsystems (organization, planning, coordination and direction are the remaining ones) which are very difficult to separate with respect to control. The entire administrative process follows, it must be considered as a circular movement, in which all the subsystems are intricately linked, the relationship between planning and control is very close since the manager sets the objective and also rules, before the which actions are contrasted and evaluated.
It is necessary to see the control to determine if the assignments and relationships in the organization are being fulfilled as planned.
Control System or Process Chart
This graph represents the control process as a closed system, that is, it has the characteristic of feedback or self-regulation. The movement is circular and continuous, taking place in the following way: it starts from the activity or reality to which we must measure, with the help or use of standards, once the decision is made, we compare the results of the plans, in this way the reality will remain adjusted for the future. It is noted at this point that not only can reality be adjusted, other times it is the plans that need correction because they are significantly removed from activities.
BIBLIOGRAPHY CONSULTED
Hermida, Jorge A. Science of the administration. Ediciones Contabilidad Moderna SAIC Buenos Aires May 1983.
Photocopies and notes provided by the chair.
Alvarez, Hector Felipe. Administration, an introduction to the study of Administration. Society for Argentine Pedagogical Studies. Cordoba 1987.
Yourdon, Edward. Modern structured analysis. Prentice-Hall Panamericana, SA Mexico 1989.
Ramón García-Pelayo and Gross. Little Larousse Illustrated (dictionary). Larousse editions. France 1977.
Structure of Organizations, folder of the year 1994 course 1k8.
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