Risk management requires identifying the relationship between population growth, the physical demands of human settlements, economic planning, and the appropriate use of available land (UN, 2004).
In order to minimize the possible loss of physical assets and environmental capital, it is essential to apply informed and consistent planning practices. They comprise the use of tools and guidance documents. Examples include master plans, development plans, water resources management, recreation and tourism plans, as well as other planning instruments, such as detailed land use or zoning plans, and territorial regulations.
The landscape itself must be treated as a valuable resource for risk management. Not applying this principle is inviting disaster.
A conflictive context can lead to neglect or abandonment of productive activities in a region and, therefore, to food shortages, which is an example of how man can make a territory vulnerable (Muñoz and Brunet (2006).
In the case of agriculture, these principles outlined above are key to reducing vulnerabilities in the local and regional agricultural development process. Successful planning of land use for agricultural activities presupposes that there is an absolute correspondence between the vocation shown by the types of land to assimilate different agricultural practices and the real assignments or types of land use that are conferred on those. If this principle is violated, because the right balance between capacity and need is broken and the procreation of risk scenarios would be favored, since vulnerability conditions will appear that make the type of land use assigned, say a wrong kind of crop,be more likely to die in the face of a certain atmospheric or climatological threat, just to cite one example.
Pues bien, en la práctica esta armonía entre vocación-asignación, suele romperse, bien debido a causas objetivas y/o sujetivas, creándose condiciones favorables para la exacerbación de condiciones de riesgos. Cuando esta ruptura aparece en el escenario de un territorio, se hace necesario crear las condiciones adecuadas mediante una política de ordenamiento territorial que justifique los usos pertinentes del suelo. Un ejemplo de la situación descrita, es la que se produjo en Cuba, a raíz de haberse llevado a cabo el redimensionamiento de la agricultura cañera. Como consecuencia de esta medida, muchas de las tierras destinadas al cultivo de la gramínea, pasaron a tener otros usos, pero en la práctica, esos nuevos usos en muchos casos no estuvieron hechos sobre la base de la vocación de esas tierras, Por otra parte, transcurrieron muchos años después de implementada la tarea y muchas de las áreas liberadas, quedaron en barbecho, siendo objeto de otros usos informales. De esta manera, se creó un complejo cuadro de usos del la tierra, que no respondían a las exigencias vocacionales de los suelos, ni a su aptitud.
This situation has largely prevailed to this day, where the need to apply a coherent and up-to-date territorial planning policy that puts an end to the manifest contradictions in land use is evident. And with it, the reduction of the inherent environmental, ecological, physical and social vulnerabilities. This will contribute significantly to reducing the risks of possible disasters.
In summary, the study of spatial planning considers that integrated development is the ideal way to socio-economically enhance an area, and the consequences of development in the natural environment must be foreseen and always seeking viability over time (Brunet et al, 1998)
2.1 Agroecocology in Cuba. Content and features
When the Cuban Revolution triumphed on January 1, 1959, agricultural development was planned based on the "Green Revolution", which although had productive successes, brought negative consequences such as the loss of biodiversity, the degradation of soils, deforestation, water pollution, problems of economic dependency and exodus of the rural population to the cities.
The institutionalization of interest in the introduction of ecological agro-technologies, the conservation and protection of the environment, and sustainable agrarian and rural development was favored by the serious economic crisis caused by the collapse of the Eastern European socialist camp and the disappearance of the USSR. at the beginning of the 90's, accentuated by the economic blockade of the United States.
The possibilities for the materialization of this interest were opened with the socioeconomic transformations carried out in the field of agriculture. In this sense, the land tenure regime was reformed in favor of cooperative usufructuary property indefinitely. This has been called «privatization of state lands» or «destatization of lands», but rather it is possible to speak of «cooperativization of state lands», the re-peasantization of the fields was favored through the small parcel appropriation of land and the repopulation of fields or rural environments, the autonomy, self-management and participatory, active and leading administration in the state or non-state agricultural production units were encouraged,systems of stimulation and reward for agricultural work were established, such as payment based on man's connection to the area and the final results; the agricultural market was revived.
As a result of these transformations, food production in Cuba is currently carried out through different organizational forms of agricultural exploitation, of which three are state-owned, occupying 32.8% of arable land (state companies, new type state farms and state self-consumption areas), while the productions of the 7 remaining organizational forms are private with 67.2% of the cultivable area (UBPC, CPA, CCS, non-associated farmers, usufructuaries, parcels and patios).
In the state organizational forms, Companies, New Type Farms and Entity Self-consumption, both the land and the means of production belong to the state. The main difference between these forms lies in the fact that in the State Companies the workers are salaried with a link to the final result of their work according to the fulfillment of the company's production plans, while the New Type Farms acquire a greater autonomy and workers receive a payment commensurate with the work performed and the productive results. The State Self-Consumption of State Entities obtain productions to support the food security of social consumption of sectors not specialized in agriculture. They use land that generally remained idle and an over-employed workforce.
In the three non-State Organizational forms, with collectivized production, the property management form of production is developed to a high degree and especially individual participation as independent sources of generation of ideas, initiatives and alternatives to strengthen and consolidate the production process.
The collective way in which these organizational variants are developed create good conditions for developing technical assistance and training programs for all producers, as well as facilitating the provision of state services both for production and for the social, collective or personal use of producers and their families.
| Characteristic | Credit and Service Cooperatives (CCS) | Agricultural Production Cooperatives (CPA) | Basic Units of Cooperative Production (UBPC) |
| Origin and moment of creation | Beginning of the sixties after the Agrarian Reform Law (1959) and its deepening (1963) | Mid-1970s (socialization of management - administration and use - of individually owned land) | • First half of the nineties (innovations in state agriculture) |
| Land tenure and type of peasant / farmer | Private property (farmers, landowners or beneficiaries in usufruct of lands freely ceded by the State Family administration and management | Union of private properties and formation of a group of partners
Collective administration and management |
Tenure in free usufruct for an indefinite time (cession of state land to salaried workers)
Collective administration and management |
| Current average size of entities (total hectares) | 380 | 623 | 1739 |
| Total number of associates | 168,484 | 62,925 | 272,407 |
| Average number of associates per entity | 65 | 55 | 103 |
| Average number of hectares per associate | 5.9 | 11.3 | 16.9 |
| Number of entities | 2,578 | 1,138 | 2,654 |
| Predominant production system | High level of subdivision per farm
Diversification of crops and animal breeding • Low-medium levels of mechanization with fossil energy and small irrigation systems or rain-fed crops • Low levels of chemical inputs and fertilizers with the exception of crops prioritized for export (tobacco, coffee, citrus) |
Low level of subdivision on the farm • High degree of adoption of specialized technologies by crop or animal species, with a progressive greater diversification from the 1990s • Medium-high level of mechanization with fossil energy and large | Systems with low level of subdivision per farm • High degree of application of specialized technologies by crop or animal species • High level of mechanization with heavy machines and fossil energy • Large irrigation systems for crops |
Non-State Organizational Forms of an individual nature include:
a) Non-associated farmers.
They own the land and the means of production. Their production plans are in accordance with their possibilities and the support they receive from local organizations and state entities.
b) Usufructuaries.
They are producers who receive land from the state in usufruct for the development of certain production (coffee, cocoa, tobacco, rice and others), they can also carry out other types of food production. They commit part of the production with sale to the state and freely sell the surplus of other productions.
c) Partners.
Locally, plots of up to 0.2 ha are delivered to produce food for family self-sufficiency and to freely market surplus products. In general, the parceleros associate in local groups to increase the efficiency of their production and facilitate post-harvest and marketing treatments, thereby reaching other facilities as in previous ways.
d) Patios and Home Gardens.
It is the most numerous organizational form of food production. In turn, the most dynamic in terms of individual participation is concerned. In the Fresh Vegetables and Condiments production subprogram alone, 536136 patios are organized.
Producers included in these Organizational Forms of Non-State Individual Production, receive equal attention in terms of technical assistance and training referred through the National Urban Agriculture Program, the National Association of Small Farmers and different levels of the Ministry of Agriculture and from other national or local entities related to food production and distribution.
In these units, the property sense is manifested at the highest level, in all the productive and organizational actions related to the unit and the producers themselves.
2.1.1 Agroecological techniques implemented by agriculture
Cuban agriculture has had to face great challenges in its natural environment, since 76% of all agricultural areas had poorly productive soils, 14.9% affected by salinity, 31% low organic matter content; there is a tendency to decrease precipitation and to increase temperatures with a precipitation / evaporation ratio of 0.60 in 14% of the territory; in addition to the appearance of new pests and diseases in animals and crops of economic importance, with high lethality and virulence.
In order to counteract these effects, the work has been framed in five fundamental directions focused on: (1) ecological solutions for the management of pests, diseases and weeds; (2) management technologies in crop and animal systems; (3) ecological techniques for tillage and soil conservation; (4) various programs based on the principles of organic agriculture and (5) Outreach, education, training and research. (Rosset and Altieri, 1995; Jiménez, 2007; Delgado et al, 2007).
In summary, the main transformation consisted of adapting the production model from an agriculture with high chemical and energy inputs to an agriculture with low inputs with an agroecological and sustainable approach.
The following table shows some successful practices developed in recent years
| Exercise | Comments |
| Animal traction, soil management and organic nutrition, polycultures | Use of oxen grew 2.5 times, the multi-plow and family of implements for animal traction was created. Improved ecological soil management and conservation (0.5 MM ha) and organic nutrition, syrup, green manures, compost manure, vermiculture, various biofertilizers, solid and liquid residuals, others. In 2005, 2.4 MM t were improved with organic fertilization. In polycultures, good results in land use index, (IET), sustainability and stability of ecosystems. |
| Biofertilizers | Mass production of Rhizobium, Bradyrhizobium, Azotobacter, Azospirillum, Fosforina (P solubilizer), Biotierras. |
| Biogas | A way to use cheap and useful gas to generate energy and family fuel, it generates a by-product (“mud”) used as fertilizer. Different types are built mainly in the livestock and pig sector. |
| Ecological pest management | 280 craft centers (CREE) in the country and four industrial plants to produce biological pest and disease controls. From 2,000 to 2,500 t of biopesticides are applied annually, favoring 1 MM ha. 75% of chemicals have been reduced for this purpose. |
| Weed control | Avoid plowing, minimum or zero tillage, leave seeds on the surface, grazing cattle, goats and sheep with high load, reforest with fast growing species, planting temporary crops. |
| Urban agriculture | Thousands of families produce food using organic methods in cities, produce vegetables and others, including animals, in support of the family basket.
Sustained and spectacular growth, today produces more than 4.1 MM t of food and has generated more than 350 thousand jobs. |
| Popular rice | It sows in small marginal areas, with little or no inputs, supports family consumption of the basic grain in Cuba, producing more than 40% of the needs, its by-products are for animal use. |
| Sustainable livestock | Legumes in associations, protein banks or silvopastoralism can produce between 5 and 10 kg.day -1 of milk and 400 700 g / day of beef.
Positive results in birds, pigs, goats, rabbits and other species. |
| Agroecological Systems
Integrated (livestock-agriculture-forestry) |
Base diversification, integration and synergy. In experimental and production works, 410 t.ha -1 of total products have been obtained, of them 13 t of cow's milk and high energy efficiency from 210 units produced / unit invested. As well as environmental, biological, economic efficiency. One has fed 912 people, according to conditions and stage of the system. |
| Green medicine | Rescue of popular tradition, has provided a solution to the lack of medicines, maintaining human and animal health |
| Other programs | Production programs for sugar, fruit growing, citrus, coffee, cocoa, honey from bees and other certified organic products have been initiated. |
2.2 AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONING OF CUBA AND AGRO-ECO-SYSTEMIC GROUPS CONSIDERED IN THE COUNTRY
The use of rural space and the management of natural resources cannot be carried out simply by transposing options developed in other ecological systems. The proposals and solutions adopted in each situation must be based on a particular analysis of the natural, economic and social components at stake and on a forecast of the dynamic functioning of the adopted system.
Gómez et al. (2002) considered territorial planning as the process of evaluating the biophysical, social, economic, cultural, political, and technological potential of an area, in order to select optimal land uses and to project their implementation in spatio-temporal terms, in such a way that sustainable development processes are generated. This land use planning and management should be based on ecological zoning, the characterization and analysis of production systems, and the evaluation of land based on its current and potential use (FAO, 1997).
Due to the above, it is necessary to have an adequate knowledge of the agro-ecological zones of Cuba, which have been proposed by Ortega and are set out below.
In agroclimatic zoning, soils or soil combinations with similar hydric characteristics were grouped, which largely reflects the forming rock, and not always the type of relief, so the limits and the name of the units are close, but they do not copy geographic regionalizations.
Figure 1:
Agroclimatic Zoning of Cuba
1- Karrsa and swampy plain of Guanahacabibes
It is a protected area in which important agricultural activities are not carried out, so the water demand is low.
2- Cumulative and denudative fluvio-marine plains of Pinar del Río
Most of the derived soils are ferralitic, sometimes fersialitic, in which the leaching of clays is facilitated by the abundance of quartzite sand (classes 1 and 2).
It is an important agricultural region in temporary crops, mainly tobacco, which require irrigation in the dry season.
3- Heights of the Organs
Most of the area the soils have suffered intense erosion, both current and geological, which is why lithic soils (class 13) are frequent, with only forest value.
4- Cajálbama plateau and subordinate areas
In the more stable planes there are ferritic senile soils (class 10) of only forest importance. In more unstable topography areas there are ferromagnesial fersialitic soils (class 8), where irrigation is limited by the rugged topography of the terrain.
5- Heights and mountains of El Rosario
They are all soils that retain significant amounts of moisture. Irrigation is used very limited by the topography and the fundamental dedication of the area, coffee and forest.
6- Denudational and marshy Artemisa-Colón coastal plain
Ferruletic (class 5) permeable soils with good moisture retention have been formed from the floods. Red fersialitic soils or rendzines, which belong to the same hydrological class as the previous ones (class 5) can be seen in the less powerful eluvia.
In the lower zones, the effect of the subsurface waters increases, developing processes of hydration of iron and gleyzación, soils containing three-layer clays are formed, in addition to those of two layers predominant in the area. These soils (class 4) are very wet plastics and dry tough, although they do not crack as much as montmorillonite plastic soils; they are poorly drained soils.
On the coast there are swamp soils (class 11), loams, without significant accumulation of peat.
Surface currents are scarce and are already dammed. The underground reserves are extensive, but to a large extent they are compromised in the supply of the City of Havana and other urban locations. The water demands of agriculture are great.
7- Abrasive marine terraces Habana-Matanzas
There are few crops in the area, if we do not take into account the horticultural crops of the City of Havana. The demand for water for agriculture competes with the needs of the population centers, the groundwater is somewhat mineralized so it should be used with caution.
8- Heights of Habana-Matanzas
Brown soils (class 8) and preferably sedimentary rocks (tuffs, sandstones, limestones) are developed on basic rocks, brown soils, most of them carbonated (class 3) or rendzine soils (class 14). The properties of these hydrological groups are close, they retain enough moisture and are moderately permeable, although the rendzines are much better if they are not eroded. They are soils that have been used very intensively so they are generally eroded, often heavily eroded, in these cases they must be considered as lithic soils of classes 12 or 13.
In the Almendares San Juan depression, included in this AEZ, along with the typical brown soils (class 3), alluvial rocks with excellent water properties appear (class 5).
Groundwater is abundant as well as dammed water, but the water demand of agriculture must be adapted to the needs of the important population centers, including the demand of the City of Havana.
9- Zapata swampy coastal plain
The agricultural exploitation is limited, only in the south of Matanzas it was attempted to build polders for the cultivation of these peaty soils. In them it is possible to use the sub-irrigation technique managing the sluice system well. However, the result has not been satisfactory, due to the secondary salinization of the mobs and the subsidence of the soil. In very dry years the surface layer of the peat bog can dry out to a degree that it is easily flammable. Major fires have occurred in recent years.
10- Zapata karst plain
Very shallow soils (class 12) predominate in both the western and eastern parts of the Ciénaga de Zapata.
Water demand is low and groundwater reserves can be considered inexhaustible.
11- Majaguillar swamp
Low area where peat has accumulated on terrigenous sediments. They are soils of hydrological class 11.
12- Savannahs of Manacas
Soils abound with layers cemented by silica, classified early as mocarreros (class 6) with poor drainage and little moisture retention.
It is one of the most variegated soil cover regions in Cuba.
Most of the soils do not retain moisture adequately, so the dry season is severe in this AEZ.
Both superficial and underground water sources are limited.
13- Heights and small mountains of Cubanacán and the Cordillera
The drainage of the area is good and the moisture retention of the deeper soils is acceptable, however irrigation is very effective in these soils, mainly dedicated to sugar cane.
14- Corralillo Caibarién coastal plain
Plastic and vertic soils (class 4) with very poor hydrophysical characteristics have been developed. Both surface and internal drainage is poor, and the usable water in the soils is not high.
Due to this characteristic, drainage works are very effective and irrigation is necessary to obtain adequate harvests.
However, there are dangers of salinization in the lower terraces because the water table is mineralized at a shallow depth.
15- Trinidad Mountains
The land is not suitable for temporary crops, so the water demand for irrigation is limited.
16- Sancti-Spiritus Mountains.
The valleys are widely cultivated, but the water demand is not very high thanks to the characteristics of the soils and the rainfall of the AEZ.
Surface water resources are extensive.
17- Plains, heights and small mountains of Cubanacán
The predominant rocks are carbonated or terrigenous sedimentary, from which brown soils have been formed (class 3).
They are fertile soils, with good moisture retention and moderate filtering capacity. However, the drainage problems are only local due to the topography of the region that allows satisfactory surface runoff.
18- Plains, heights and mountains of the northwest of Las Villas and Cubanacán.
The soils that develop from their weathering crusts are brown of classes 7 and 8. The internal drainage is deficient in them, but the topography of the terrain favors so that there are only local drainage problems.
19- Northern plain of Ciego de Ávila
Class 4 plastic soils formed on Quaternary sediments. Drainage is poor, they have high moisture retention.
There are sufficient groundwater reserves to carry out intensive use of these soils.
20- Cienaga de Morón.
Turbid soils (hydrological class 11), the peat layer is not very deep and rests on soft loams, and these in turn on carsified limestone.
The swamp soils have been partially desiccated to be planted with sugarcane, so far no secondary salinization has been reported.
Shallow soils have no important agricultural prospects.
There is an abundance of water resources, since in the middle of the area is the Laguna de la Leche, an important natural reservoir.
21- Cumulative Plain of the Jíbaro.
It is an extensive plain covered by quaternary carbonated terrigenous sediments, Large areas of rice are planted in this AEZ, taking advantage of the enormous capacity of impounded water.
22- Red plain of Ciego de Ávila
The area is widely exploited in agricultural activities and has abundant groundwater, although there are already signs of intrusion of the salt wedge due to overexploitation of the water resource.
23- Coastal plain of the southeast of Camagüey
The fertility of these soils is low. The use of these soils requires drainage work. Surface and underground water reserves are suitable for not too intensive agricultural use.
24- Southern Plain Las Tunas Camagüey
The predominant soils are of poor quality, despite the fact that the best ones are planted with sugar cane.
The water reserves of are limited, there are no large permanent currents or significant reservoirs.
25- Axis of the central plain Florida Camagüey Tunas
The soils are quite poor, for the most part they are grasslands. Although the water demand of livestock is less than that of temporary crops, the availability of water in this AEZ is so limited that it is usually not sufficient in some severe years.
26- Periphery of the central plain Florida Camagüey Tunas
In general, they are highly fertile soils, but with drainage problems, especially plastics from more depressive areas. Water is scarce due to the small size of the basins and little capacity of the underground aquifers.
27- Sierra de Cubitas
The soils are moderately deep despite the energy of the relief, ferromagnesial fersialitic soils (class 8) have been formed from the serpentines, while in the north, brown soils have been formed (class 3)
They are not agricultural soils.
28- Covered carso in the north of Cubitas
Ferritic soils (class 10) have been formed from the old iron-rich sediments, but mainly soils of ferralic constitution, but richer in iron than the well-known Red Ferralitics typical of the plains of western Cuba, we consider them in the class 5, but without data to support it.
They are soils little used by agriculture.
29- Ferritic pediplano of the northwest of Camagüey
In some eroded areas, the old weathering crust may have disappeared, so it must be classified as lithosols (class 13), or the nontronitic horizon appears, from which ferromagnesial fersialitic soils develop late (class 8).
With the exception of these latter soils, their quality is extremely poor, so this AEZ is not used even in reforestation work.
30- Máximo Nuevitas River coastal plain
It is one of the smallest units separated in this work, for not finding who to join it and not for its importance. It is a relatively high plain, made up of limestone rocks (loams and biogenic sandstones). Moderately deep brown soils (class 3) have formed from the eluviae of these rocks. Its agricultural use is limited.
31- Nuevita Maniabón coastal plain
It is an important agricultural area despite the prolonged annual period of water stress, which has increased in recent years. Reservoir water reserves are limited and groundwater is very scarce.
32- Marine terraces of Camagüey Holguín
The precipitation of the AEZ is scarce and erratic, the soils are too permeable and unable to retain sufficient moisture due to its low power, the area has little agricultural value.
Small heights and plains of Maniabón
It is an AEZ with very fertile soils, but agriculture is limited by suffering between 9 and 10 months per year of water stress, a trend that has been accentuated in the last decade. It is advisable to think about a change from traditional crops, eliminate banana plantations, supply summer grains and adapt the vaccine load by area to the potential of the reservoirs.
33- Plains and heights of Cacocum
Most of the AEZ is covered by very fertile soils, but the long annual period of water stress (9 to 10 months) reduces the possibilities of exploitation.
Dammed water is scarce and the underground sources very poor. An adaptation of agricultural production to the water potential of the AEZ must be considered.
34- Cauto Nipe Plain
The widely predominant soils are vertic soils (class 4).
Soils are potentially very rich if technologies for their use are assimilated and developed.
In Valle del Cauto, an important part of these soils is dedicated to rice cultivation. The prolonged flooding of these soils has drastically damaged their fertility (Navarro et al., 1990), the current yields are mediocre.
Artificial pastures are short-lived and the pasture load is very low, as is the production of milk per animal.
Secondary salinization is a very widespread phenomenon in this AEZ, which has increased dramatically from the generalization of irrigation, the construction of reservoirs, micro-reservoirs and dams on flat land, the consumption of water by unlined canals and poor maintenance. or not construction of complementary drainage networks.
It is a dry territory, it suffers from an annual water stress of 8 to 9 months. The tendency is to increase the number of dry years.
In addition to agriculture, shrimp farming demands water. The widespread cultivation of rice is a great consumer of this scarce resource.
It is time to rethink the agricultural dedication of this AEZ, looking for crops where water consumption is optimized.
35- Birama swamp
It is a great refuge for both native fauna, such as flamingo, and migratory birds.
Although we consider that this ARZ should be preserved as a nature refuge, we must point out that its use in agriculture is possible, but only with large investments and a high technological culture. It can also be used in the production of salt.
36- Plain Manzanillo Niquero
There are large rice fields in the area, a pond for shrimp farming and several important population centers, so the water situation is tense.
37- Foothills of the Sierra Maestra Occidental
The hydrology of the AEZ is controlled by the vigorous relief and by the karst nature, the rainwater is evacuated quickly. The soils retain water quite well, and since water stress is less than 5 months in almost the entire area, conditions for agricultural development are favorable.
38- Firm of the Sierra Maestra Occidental
Most of the soils are mature or senile, developed from deep weathering crusts, so their composition is fersialitic or ferralitic, always leached (hydrological class 1).
The soils infiltrate the subsoil relatively well thanks to the hydrophysical properties of the soils and weathering bark, as well as the still existence of a forest vegetation cover.
The proper functioning of the drainage regime of the rivers that originate from it and that supply water to important cities and extensive agricultural areas in the eastern part of the country depends on the good conservation of these soils and vegetation.
39- Eastern Master Sierra
The area has some agricultural importance, mainly due to coffee production, but it is not of great hydrological relevance.
40- Mayarí plateaus
The fertility of so highly weathered soils is very low.
The most rational thing is to maintain the pine forests, developing plantations and performing silvicultural care to increase the productivity of these forests. Although it could be tested with some acidophilous perennial tropical crops, such as tea.
In some of the plateaus there is some possibility of irrigation, so that summer sowing of some exotic vegetables can be done in order to satisfy some of the demands of tourism. The fertility of these soils is high, which is why they are used, mainly in coffee plantations.
41- Mayarí limestone blades and earrings
It is covered by carbonated sedimentary effusive rocks, from which brown soils have been formed (class 3).
Deeper soils are excellent for growing coffee. The topography of the land does not allow irrigation more than in a few places.
Rains are abundant, nowhere in this AEZ does water stress exceed 4 months per year.
42- Sagua Baracoa blades
The predominant soils are ferromagnesial fersialitic (class 8), generally deep and rich in organic matter, derived from serpentinites and leached fersialitic (class 1), derived from shales, tuffs and sandstones. Both are permeable soils.
They are highly fertile soils, suitable for growing cocoa, coffee and bananas.
It is not necessary to use irrigation in the area, nor is it feasible to do so due to the topography of the terrain.
43- Guantanamo Terraces
Such special climatic conditions could be exploited for the production of arid zone crops such as cacti to obtain cochineal dye, jojoba, candelilla, etc.
The population centers in the south of Guantánamo have grown disproportionately without responding to an increase in production possible to extract with the current dedication of land, and affecting the conservation of water and forest resources in the area.
44- South of the Guantánamo Valley
There are large extensions of saline soils, with very low permeability, which have been considered within hydrological class 4.
Non-saline soils are different types of soils of brown color (class 3), almost always carbonate, often this carbonate is secondary. They are fertile soils, but it is necessary to cultivate them with irrigation, given the dry climate where water stress exceeds 9 months.
45- Guantánamo Valley Center.
The soils are brown (class 3), fertile and quite well drained. Irrigation is necessary, as it suffers from 6 to 9 months of water stress a; year.
In this AEZ some heights where shallow or very shallow soils predominate (class 12).
There is dammed water, but it does not fully satisfy the demands of agriculture and the population. The use of land in the Valley must be rethought, adapting it to the edaphoclimatic realities of the AEZ.
46- Guaso Plateau
Given the benign climate of the plateau, where water stress is reduced to only 3 to 3 months of the year and its cool temperature, it is successfully cultivated.
In the valleys, where delluviums and alluviums accumulate, there are deep well-drained soils of hydrological class 5. These soils are especially fertile, capable of giving abundant coffee harvests if they are well cared for.
47- North of the Isle of Youth
In general, it can be said that the AEZ is made up of permeable soils of medium to low fertility, capable of retaining enough usable water for plants. The annual period of water stress is about 5 months, but in the AEZ there is enough dammed water, usable by agriculture. With proper fertilization and agrotechnics, harvests of almost any crop can be obtained from most of its Ferralitic-Quartzitic soils.
48- Plains and swamps of the south of the Isle of Youth
The abundance of active calcium together with the temporary excess of humidity favored by the proximity of the water table, allows the accumulation of a mulch formed by protorendzine soils (class 15). Towards the west the carbonate rocks are harder and have a higher mineral content, so their eluvians are more abundant, brown soils are formed (class 3), although there are many very shallow soils (class 12), and from other origins they can have ferralitic composition (class 5).
The fertility of these soils is very fragile, since it depends on the amount of accumulated humus, humus that is mineralizable very quickly once the soil is broken. The possibilities of mechanization are reduced. There is water in the subsoil, but the intergate is nearby, so the wells must be exploited with great care.
Between this AEZ and the previous one lies the Cienaga de Lanier, where there is some accumulation of peat. It is not agricultural land.
In order to rescue the agro-productive traditions of the farmers in the sector, they should agree with themselves on how the previously established standard farm should be used. This information is contrasted against that which can be defined from previous comprehensive studies. For this reason, we must point out that according to Leyva, certain areas with microclimates suitable for certain crops are presented, which together with the cultural tradition, have enabled efficient exploitation.
From the time of the colony Cuba, due to its Edaphoclimatic and market characteristics, quickly emerged as a tobacco, sugar and livestock power, reaching the supply of these products to a large part of the international market.
Table 1: Agricultural areas with greater tradition and efficiency in agricultural production
| Country areas | Dominant crops |
| Caney, Santiago de Cuba. | Mango and other fruit trees. |
| Ciego de Ávila, Camagüey. | Pineapple cultivation. |
| Banao, Villa Clara. | Exotic fruit trees and Vegetables, (Garlic and Onion). |
| Mountainous area and Guantánamo valley. | Custard Apple, Vignas, Coffee and Sunflower. |
| Baracoa, Guantánamo | Cocoa, Coco and Coffee. |
| Los Palacios, Pinar del Río. | Rice. |
| Plains of Cauto, Bayamo. | Rice. |
| South of the Gíbaro Santi Spiritus. | Rice. |
| Pinar del Río and specific areas of the Vertientes municipality. | Tobacco. |
| Isle of Youth. | Cucurbits and citrus (especially grapefruit). |
| La Salud, Havana Province. | Peanuts and various crops. |
| Ceballos, Ciego de Ávila. | Citrus and bomba fruit (papaya). |
| Velazco, Holguín Province. | Beans. |
| Slaughters. | Henequen. |
| Ciego de Avila | Kenaf. |
| Güines (South Coast) Havana. | Garlic and onion. |
| Santa Cruz, (North Coast). | Onion. |
| Güira de Melena. (Havana). | Potato and sweet potato. |
The area back down as the province of Pinar del Río was called produced the best black tobacco leaves in the world. The Province of Havana, Matanzas, Las Villas, Camagüey were large producers of sugar cane (there were also large cattle ranches) and the old province of Oriente had magnificent conditions for the production of sugar cane, while the mountainous areas of this The last province had a monopoly on the coffee brought to our country by the French.
In addition to these species of crops of great tradition in Cuba, they were produced in limited quantities viands, vegetables, vegetables and grains, as well as some quantities of fruits such as pineapple, some citrus, mango, avocado, melon, etc.
In summary, the main areas of the country with the greatest experiences in Cuba related to the production technology of different plant species appear in Table 1 below.
2.3 The territorial ordering (OT) and its relation with those of disaster risks in Cuba
2.3.1 General
“Land use planning is not a simple linear process; it is complex and under considerable pressure, including possible legal action. The process occurs in a political context and both urban developers and local governments, local communities, provincial and federal governments influence the results of land use. The development of the land-use planning process requires extensive consultation with the community, as well as ongoing monitoring and reviews throughout the execution of the plan. Therefore, strategic land use planning is an interactive and evolutionary process ”(Emergency Management, Australia, 2002)
Furthermore, risk management requires identifying the relationship between population growth, the physical demands of human settlements, economic planning, and the appropriate use of available land.
In order to minimize the possible loss of physical assets and environmental capital, it is essential to apply informed and consistent planning practices. They comprise the use of tools and guidance documents. Examples include master plans, development plans, water resources management, recreation and tourism plans, as well as other planning instruments, such as detailed land use or zoning plans, and territorial regulations.
In many societies, the cultural, social, or economic characteristics associated with land may underlie some of the most controversial issues, particularly at the local level. Other works have mentioned the economic attractiveness that floodplains or the slopes of volcanoes exert on the inhabitants. In other countries, wetlands are drained to become parks or habitable land.
The decision on how to use the land is inherently complex, and it becomes even more difficult when there are conflicting views about the role that land should play in reducing collective risk exposure. The aspects to consider invariably revolve around who owns the land, who is most exposed to risk and who should benefit. Too often, the desire for short-term profit prevails over projected future profits.
For these reasons, land use management and regional and territorial planning linked to it should be considered as natural extensions of threat assessment and risk mapping. They must take into account the spatial parameters of physical vulnerability, in accordance with the broader social, economic and environmental needs of society.
2.3.2 Applying principles of land use management and urban and rural planning to reduce risk
In the context of risk reduction strategies, the following principles apply to land use management (UN, 2004):
Land use management plans form a shared basis for sustainable development and risk reduction strategies:
- As a physical and spatial projection of the social, economic, environmental and cultural policies of a country, land use management includes various planning and management mechanisms, which are necessary for the productive but sustainable use of the national territory and facilitate satisfactory regulation. of the economic life of a country.
Land use management operates at different geographic scales that require different management means and operational mechanisms:
- At the national level, sectoral economic policies are incorporated into the administrative structure of provincial or territorial jurisdictions. At the metropolitan level, strategic plans are formulated for sustainable urban development. At the municipal level, local practices for managing the use of urban Land is determined by municipal ordinances and regulatory plans. At the local or community level, the plans promote participatory management of community works and urban projects.
Land use management includes the following legal, technical and social aspects:
- The legal and regulatory aspect includes the adoption of laws, decrees, ordinances and other regulations adopted by national and local governments. The technical and instrumental aspect includes the planning mechanisms and instruments that regulate land uses and contribute to a better balance. between private interests and the public good.The social and institutional aspect includes mechanisms that include citizen participation in land use management practices such as consultations, public hearings, open municipal sessions and plebiscites.
Land use management encompasses comprehensive services and individual sectoral interests:
- Comprehensive or dominant issues revolve around the provision of basic services or related infrastructure, such as water, energy, transport, communications, and, as currently recognized, risk management. Sectoral issues of an individual nature include housing, health, education, agriculture, natural resources, economy and commerce.
The practice of land use management consists of three stages:
- Strategic planning Administration and inspection Follow-up and monitoring
To be successful, land use management plans must solve the following challenges:
- Tensions or vested interests may arise between the government and private, national and local interests or between state instruments and the population. Dynamic factors such as population growth, migration or conflicts over the use, supply or demand of services will arise. Specific factors will intervene in risk management, including the changing nature of vulnerability and large fluctuations in the value of land and urban and environmental services.
Successful land use management requires critical resources, such as:
- A clear legal and regulatory structure that defines the competences of the different actors and the role of each one in the different stages of planning. To ensure true participation of the population in decision-making, it is essential to have access to information on regulatory plans, land and property markets, and private and public investment projects. A decentralized fiscal policy strengthens the ability of local governments to raise revenue and consolidate their finances for effective local administration.
2.3.3 Planning and management of land use in Cuba
In Cuba, planning and management of land use at the national level are effectively integrated into risk reduction factors. For more than 40 years, the body in charge of physical planning in the country has been the Institute for Physical Planning (UN, 2004). Its planning system encompasses the full range of political and administrative jurisdictions and deals with a wide spectrum of issues related to land use. These include the management of natural resources, decisions regarding human settlements, the environment, threats, vulnerability and risk.
The Institute sets standards and provides risk management methods that include the application of building codes and territorial risk management to reduce the physical vulnerability of homes and essential infrastructure, particularly in flood-prone areas.
These and other instruments related to the application of controls on land use throughout the country are supported by well-integrated legal and methodological structures, which are linked to the country's sustainable development processes. In addition to the Institute, among other key organizations for the application of these strategies are the National Directorate of Civil Defense and the Hydrometeorological Service.
Two main mechanisms are used for the implementation of land use policies. The first of these is a set of planning methods that include land use programs that are applied at the national, provincial and municipal levels. The elaboration of territorial and urban planning plans corresponds to the authorities of the provinces and municipalities.
Once approved, these plans become legal instruments that regulate the use of land by its owners, be they the State or individuals. These instruments are complemented with feasibility or location studies, or with other types of detailed studies that are intended to satisfy certain requirements.
The second mechanism is made up of regulations and management practices. It includes guidelines for the allocation of investments and guidance so that construction investment is consistent with land use criteria. At this stage of planning, factors related to physical vulnerability and environmental impact assessment are incorporated.
As in other island states, coastal areas are the most fragile and complex ecosystems in the country. Its increasing exposure to the impact of natural disasters has led the government to support studies on land use management.
At the national level, the programs establish guidelines for the use of coastal areas, identifying priority scenarios for which more detailed studies would have to be carried out. A storm surge map has been produced, along with others related to vulnerability.
The use of these maps allows identifying the relative risk levels of the settlements located in coastal areas. This study has resulted in several land use regulations, including specific recommendations for reconditioning, resettlement, and regulation of urban and rural growth of coastal settlements. In addition, after a study carried out in 1998 that revealed the existence of deficiencies in the management of land use, a general study of the province of Havana was carried out. This study, which was supported by UNESCO, was carried out jointly with the government and one of its main objectives was to reduce vulnerability.
The execution of related activities advances in time, with the financial commitment of the government
and of the local population. Communities have participated in different stages of the project, and have become familiar with the issue of vulnerability and with the principles of disaster reduction. To reduce the risk of disasters in coastal settlements in this area, the following recommendations have been made.
Application of direct measures:
- Ban on building holiday homes in existing settlements. Relocation of the population vulnerable to disasters. Regulation and supervision of the construction of new housing in settlements. Reconditioning and construction of houses adapted to flood conditions. Improvement of sewerage systems. within and around settlements. Improvement of drinking water supply and sanitation systems. Improvement of health and transport services. Creation of employment opportunities.
Indirect measures:
- Increased beach resilience. Improved irrigation systems near the coast. Rehabilitation of wetlands.
Havana is an example of urban planning for coastal areas. The city has a striking jetty or jetty, which stretches for seven kilometers from the coast and reduces the impact of the swells that periodically affect the coastline. Inadequate urban growth manifests itself in private homes and facilities that have been built nearby, within a high-risk area.
A plan approved by the Havana Board of Directors is currently being applied to all urban planning projects in the area. Thanks to the territorial zoning of vulnerability implemented through this plan, building codes and standards have been renewed. They aim to improve institutional procedures, apply more effective construction methods, and promote successful rehabilitation of the area. Basements have been rebuilt, the height of buildings regulated and new landscaping projects approved for public areas.
In Cuba, urban planning and land use management are economically and technically viable instruments for disaster reduction. Local communities have participated in projects related to these matters, helping to identify local problems, intervening in the planning process and in the implementation of decisions on land use management. The legislation applicable to disaster reduction has been modified through the application of new methodologies, which has contributed to the more effective execution of disaster risk management activities.
The multidisciplinary and inter-institutional nature of the work carried out has contributed to establishing a more methodical conceptual base to increase the effectiveness of disaster risk reduction. As the entity responsible for disaster mitigation and relief activities, the Cuban Civil Defense Service has been greatly favored by greater knowledge of the mechanisms of land use and their role in reducing risk of disasters.
Conclusions
It is necessary to continue rigorously identifying the critical limits of technological-productive activity while guaranteeing higher levels of production of goods and services, based on the optimization of land use, which is the most important natural resource in the country.
A rearrangement in the distribution, use and management of these would achieve higher levels of production and productivity, which would contribute to raising the quality and diversity of products from agriculture and creating greater surpluses for export. Logically, it cannot be ignored that the edges of the matter are multiple and go beyond technological and scientific tools and imply links and decision-making and economic, financial, social aspects and legally established property regime, as well as political aspects in the national and international level.
On the other hand, it is important that the collective way in which the organizational variants materialize and that create good conditions to develop technical assistance and training programs for all producers, is improved and facilitates the provision of state services for both production and the social, collective or personal use of producers and their families, an activity that also continues to be organized.
The experience of extreme meteorological events that have hit the country shows, more than ever, the need to reduce the vulnerability of the alternatives that are proposed locally, since the management of natural resources cannot be carried out due to a transposition of options developed in other ecological systems. The proposals and solutions adopted in each situation must be based on a particular analysis of the natural, economic and social components, and on a forecast of the dynamic functioning of the adopted system.
From the climatic zoning carried out by Cuban specialists and the historical series of databases, the experts' criteria and the simulation models, it is possible to continue working on the agroecological zoning maps of each of the territories and with it the completion of the study at the national level.
Regardless of the experiences cited, a greater effort is needed from governments and agricultural project institutions to extend the application of the principles of land use management and urban and rural planning to reduce risk, which constitute a Assurance to ensure disaster risk reduction throughout the disaster management cycle.
Undoubtedly, in this process, the instances of execution of agricultural projects play a singular role, which corresponds to translate these principles in a practical and operational way, and government institutions, who are responsible for enforcing such prerogatives.
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