Biofuels in Latin America with jatropha curcas

Local biofuel production using non-edible plant resources such as the Jatropha plant in Latin America, can contribute to the availability of renewable energy. However, the extensive and intensive production on a large scale required by international markets can completely destroy the bases of sustainable production in the field, where it is required to improve life forms and combat the effects of climate change through the capture of carbon and conservation of ecosystems.

The consequences of producing biofuels extensively for export to rich countries, in order to maintain lifestyles in these societies, can generate severe conditions and exacerbate food security problems; social inequity; poverty; climate change and degradation of ecosystems in Latin America, causing negative and unsuspected social phenomena.

Latin American countries can directly benefit from biofuels that they produce locally on a small and medium scale, without destroying ecosystems, but it is necessary to optimize bioenergy laws and regulations in order to protect rural communities and ecosystems from voracious predatory actions by corporations. transnational corporations with enormous economic ambition.

biofuels-in-latin-america-as-a-source-of-development

Biofuels from inedible vegetables, such as the Jatropha plant, can be produced locally to be used by producers in communities and agricultural, fishing, and livestock associations, etc. as fuel for tractors, agricultural machinery, fishing boats, electric power generation, etc.

Biomass for obtaining biofuels must come from inedible plant resources, cultivated in soils unsuitable for convenient and sustainable food production where irrigation water requirements are minimal and the conservation and renewal of sources in aquifers is considered, as well like capturing rainwater.

1. Plant profile

The Jatropha plant is not a miracle tree for Biodiesel production. However, the sustainable cultivation of this plant, without interfering with food production, may be a viable option in renewable energy projects because it offers additional advantages over other crops.

The oil from Jatropha seeds (30% to 40%) can be transformed into biodiesel through an esterification process and, in the case of toxic Jatropha varieties, the oil can be transformed into bio-pesticides. The by-products in the production of biodiesel with Jatropha oil are: glycerin and paste resulting from oil extraction.

Flowering in the Jatropha plant can occur between the 1st and 2nd years under very favorable conditions, but normally takes longer (3 years). Seed production stabilizes after the 4th or 5th year. Flower formation appears to be related to the rainy season. It may flower again after bearing fruit when conditions remain favorable for another 90 days, but after this 2nd bloom, the plant does not flower again, but develops vegetatively.

The development of the fruit takes between 60 and 120 days from flowering to maturity of the seed. Reproduction stops at the beginning of the rainy season.

Pests and diseases in the Jatropha plant in the wild are not a big problem. However, under extensive monoculture conditions, pests and diseases can be a problem in the crop.

Sustainable development must be an unavoidable priority condition in the cultivation of the Jatropha plant, because the negative consequences due to the lack of sustainability in the crops, can be severe and aggravate food security problems; social inequity; poverty; climate change and degradation of ecosystems in Latin America.

1. Culture

Propagation is carried out using seeds and / or cuttings (cuttings) in a greenhouse.

The seeds for sowing must be obtained from plants that have shown high yields. The storage of the seeds should not exceed 10 to 15 months, supervising the quality of the seeds during this time.

Germination in the seeds lasts for 15 days, and begins from the third to the fifth day. The germination percentage ranges from 60 to 90%.

The seedlings are developed for 3 months in a greenhouse, and are transplanted into the field when they are between 40 and 50 centimeters high.

The cuttings (cuttings) for propagation of the plant must come from semi-solid Jatropha wood (branches), with a length of 15 to 40 centimeters, and a diameter between 1.0 and 3.0 centimeters, to be planted in plastic bags inside the greenhouse.

Root growth begins in 8 to 15 days with around 80% viability. Cuttings can also be planted directly in the field when conditions are favorable.

Planting in the field can be done at a distance of three meters between plants and in vines

(holes) of 30x30x30 centimeters. Weeds will need to be controlled during plantation establishment and initial plant development.

Organic fertilization can be carried out by applying manure during transplantation in an amount of 1 to 2 kilograms per seedling and 150 grams of superphosphate followed by 20 grams of urea after 30 days. The application of nitrogen (urea) and phosphorus (superphosphate) encourages flowering.

Pruning to 35 or 45 cm. of height at the beginning of the 2nd period of rain favors the development of lateral branches. The pruning of formation in adult trees between March and May maintains the height in trees to facilitate fruit harvesting.

The climate for cultivation of Jatropha must be tropical or subtropical with an average annual temperature of 20 ° C. The plant supports light frosts of short duration, as long as the temperature does not appear below 0 ° C. It develops at altitudes from sea level to 1200 meters preferably, and rainfall from 300 to 1800 millimeters of rain or more annually.

The most frequent pests and diseases are due to the insect Podagrica spp and the fungus Cercospera spp. However, there are other insects and fungi that can affect the extensive and intensive monoculture plantations of Jatropha. In this sense, the varieties of toxic Jatropha are less susceptible to pests due to their same toxicity.

Potential Pests and Diseases

(Under conditions of extensive and intensive monoculture)

Name	Symptoms / Damage	Source
Phytophora spp.	Root rot	Heller 1992
Pythium spp.	Root rot	Heller 1992
Fusarium spp.	Root rot	Heller 1992
Helminthosporium tetramera.	Stains on leaves	Singh 1983
Pestalothiopsis paraguarensis	Stains on leaves	Singh 1983
Pestalothiopsis versicolor	Stains on leaves	Phillips 1975
Cercospora Jatropha curcas	Stains on leaves	Kar & Das 1987
Julus sp.	Seedling loss	Heller 1992
Oedaleus senegalensis	Leaves on seedlings	Heller 1992
Lepidoptera larvae	Sheet galleries	Heller 1992
Pinnaspis strachani	Black spots on branches	Van harten
Ferrisia virgata	Black spots on branches	Van harten
Calidea dregei	Suck fruit	Van harten
Nezara viridula	Suck fruit	Van harten
Spodoptera litura	Larva feeds on leaves	Meshram & Joshi
Termites and golden insect	They affect the entire plant	Van harten

The soils for Jatropha cultivation must be sandy, ventilated, well drained, PH between 5 and 7, medium to low fertility and with a minimum depth of 60 centimeters.

Carbon sequestration in Jatropha plantations, as well as in other types of plantations, occurs only during the development of the plants until reaching their maturity stage. It is in trunks and branches where carbon is stored. The amount of carbon (C0 ₂) that the tree captures consists only of the small annual increase that occurs in the wood of the tree multiplied by the biomass of the tree that contains carbon. Between 40% and 50% of a tree's biomass (wood: dry matter) is carbon. It is necessary to conserve trees to prevent the carbon (C0 ₂) contained in them from being emitted into the atmosphere.

The productivity of fruits and seeds in Jatropha trees can start from the second or third year under favorable conditions, and stabilizes from the fourth or fifth year. The amount of seed per hectare with a thousand trees in a state of total maturity ranges from 0.5 to 12.0 tons per year, depending on the conditions in the crop and the amount of water available.

The harvest is carried out two or three times during the year, because not all the fruits ripen at the same time.

1. Patterns in plant production

Research to detect patterns in the production of flowers, fruits and seeds in one-year-old Jatropha Curcas plants (Euphorbiaceae) in relation to variability in soil fertility and moisture over a twelve-month period in Nicaragua:

1. Plant conformation conforms to Leeuwenberg model. Flowering tends to be episodic and responds to variation in rainfall. Nutrient deficiency in small plants causes reproduction and development to end long before the end of the rainy season..The size of the inflorescences and the proportion of female flowers vary according to the vigor in the modules of the plantations. The development of the fruits is frequently uneven and, the growth of the late fruits begins until after the ripening of the fruits. early.

1. Biotechnology for the improvement of Jatropha Curcas

1. da Câmara Machado, NS Frick, R. Kremen, H. Katinger, M. Laimer da Câmara Machado. Institute of Applied Microbiology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Vienna, Austria.

Tissue culture for rapid propagation and genetic improvement in selected Jatropha Curcas genotypes is highly desirable. This allows to quickly provide material for new plantations, considering selected genotypes according to their properties such as productivity, resistance, etc. The start of aseptic cultivation from seeds that were stored between one and three years, as well as the reproduction phase have been optimized based on different genotypes from geographic regions such as Nicaragua, Mexico, Cape Verde, Santa Lucia (Nicaragua) and Madagascar.. In addition to the composition in the culture media, an essential factor was the cutting technique during the propagation process. Experiments to optimize rooting and resistance to climatic effects are underway.At the same time, experiments are being carried out to induce somatic embryogenesis from shoots, leaves, petioles and stems. This represents the necessary bases for genetic improvement from transformation or mutagenesis.

1. Pests Associated with Jatropha Curcas in Nicaragua

1. Grimm, J.-M. Maes . Institute of Forest Entomology, Forest Pathology and Forest Protection, Universität für Bodenkultur, Vienna, Austria, Entomological Museum SEA, León, Nicaragua

Beneficial pests and arthropods were found in Jatropha curcas L. (Euphorbiaceae) plantations in Nicaragua. The main pest: Pachycoris klugii Burmeister (Heteroptera: Scutelleridae) that damages developing fruits. The second most frequent pest was: Leptoglossus zonatus (Dallas) (Het.: Coreidae). Additionally, twelve species of insects feed on this plant. Other pests include: Lagocheirus undatus (Voet) stem borer (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae), crickets, leaf eaters, and caterpillars. Among the beneficial insects were pollinators, predators and parasites. The potential of beneficial insects is under study.

1. Potential of entomopathogenic fungi in the biological control of pests

1. Grimm, F. Guharay , Institute of Forest Entomology, Forest Pathology and Forest Protection, Universität für Bodenkultur, Vienna, Austria. CATIE / INTA-MIP (NORAD) Project, Managua, Nicaragua

The main pests in Jatropha Curcas L. (Euphorbiaceae) that cause fruit abortions and seed malformations in Nicaragua are: Pachycoris klugii Burmeister (Heteroptera: Scutelleridae) and Leptoglossus zonatus (Heteroptera: Coreidae).

Potential biological control of these pests using entomopathogenic fungi Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae (Deuteromycotina: Hyphomycetes) showed up to 99% laboratory mortality in Leptoglossus zonatus and 64% in Pachycoris klugi (Metsch, Sorok, Dallas Bals & Vuill). Both species of fungi are mass produced in Nicaragua through two stages in the production systems on sterilized rice in polypropylene bags. Oil and water formulas were successfully tested in plantations using sprinklers.

1. Lecithin Activity in Toxic and Non-Toxic Varieties

The activity of lecithin in the seed meal of toxic and non-toxic varieties of Jatropha Curcas was investigated using the latex agglutination method. There was no significant difference in lecithin activity in toxic and non-toxic varieties. Both were subjected to treatments in dry heat at 130 ° C and 160 ° C for 20, 40 and 60 minutes, and in moist heat with 60% humidity at 100 ° C and 121 ° C for 20, 40 and 60 and 10, 20 30 minutes. Treatments in humid heat at 100 ° C, and in dry heat at 130 ° C and 160 ° C for 60 minutes, did not inactivate lecithin in either variety.

The latex agglutination occurred after 10 and 20 minutes in humid heat at 121 ° C. However, the agglutination did not appear after 30 minutes. This suggests that: wet heat treatment is more effective than dry heat in inactivating lecithins; lecithins can be inactivated by moist heat at 121 ° C for 30 minutes; lecithins are probably not the toxic principle in Jatropha seed meal. The agglutination test was carried out in the presence of Ca ²⁺, Mn ²⁺ and Mg ²⁺ ions. The Mn ²⁺ ion was the best. A concentration of 0.286 mM Mn ²⁺ was maintained in the test mixture.

1. Jatropha Curcas Seed Toxicity

1. Trabi, GM Gübitz, W. Steiner, N. Foidl, Institute of Biotechnology, Graz University of Technology, Graz, Austria, Biomass Project, National University of Engineering, Managua, Nicaragua.

Jatropha Curcas seeds can contain up to 60% fatty acids in patterns similar to edible oils. The composition of the amino acids; the percentage of essential amino acids; and the mineral content of the pulp resulting from oil extraction can be compared with similar pulps used as fodder. But, due to various toxic principles in Jatropha Curcas, including lecithin (curcin); phorbol esters; saponins; protease inhibitors; and phytates, the oil, seed or paste resulting from the extraction of oil from Jatropha Curcas can be used in animal or human nutrition.

Experiments were carried out on fish to determine the toxicity of the different fractions, as well as the influence of heat and alkalinity on the paste resulting from the oil extraction. The results showed that the paste resulting from the extraction of oil from seeds and / or flour from heat-treated seeds was less toxic than that without prior heat treatment of the seeds, while the toxicity of the alcoholic oily extract did not change after treatment with hot alkali.

1. Oil and paste detoxification resulting from oil extraction

1. Gross, G. Foidl, N. Foidl, National University of Engineering, Department of Biomass, Managua, Nicaragua, Sucher & Holzer Austria

In the laboratory, treatments were carried out to detoxify the oil and the paste resulting from the oil extraction of Jatropha Curcas, in order to remove toxic elements such as phorbol esters and curcin.

The fish fed only with the paste resulting from the oil extraction previously heat-treated had a 100% mortality. However, the extraction of oil with 92% ethanol (or ethyl ether) resulted in a paste resulting from the extraction of oil from Jatropha Curcas with which the fish were fed that developed without problems and showed no symptoms of intoxication..

The same paste resulting from the extraction of oil with ethanol or ethyl ether was supplied to a group of mice that developed more slowly than those fed with soy. The mice also had no symptoms of poisoning.

1. Biogas Production with Fruit Scale

1. López, G. Foidl, N. Foidl, National University of Engineering, Department of Biomass, Managua, Nicaragua. Sucher & Holzer, Austria.

Anaerobic digestion through the husk of Jatropha Curcas fruits was carried out in the laboratory.

The experiment was carried out on a vertical flow anaerobic filter with a volume of 23.8 liters. The reactor working at room temperature. Retaining the dough for 3 days and adding NAOH only at the beginning of the reaction to stabilize the pH.

2.5 liters of biogas were obtained per day (70% methane). The degradation of the material was between 70 and 80%. The husks of the fruits were subjected to a pre-treatment to separate the fibers in order to avoid blockage of the reactor.

1. Biogas with the paste resulting from the oil extraction

1. Staubmann, G. Foidl, N. Foidl, GM Gübitz, RM Lafferty, VM Valencia Arbizu, W. Steiner , Institute of Biotechnology, Graz Technical University, Austria, Biomass Project, National University of Engineering, Managua, Nicaragua

Between 50% and 60% of the weight of the Jatropha Curcas seeds remains as a paste resulting from the extraction of the oil containing protein, carbohydrates and toxic compounds. Subsequent treatment is required to feed animals with this paste resulting from the extraction of oil, which is a good substrate for the production of biogas. Vertical flow biodigesters have been used to obtain biogas with filters in each reactor to obtain methane.

1. Hexane, water and protease enzyme in oil extraction

1. Winkler, GM Gübitz, N. Foidl, R. Staubmann, W. Steiner, Institute of Biotechnology, Graz University of Technology, Austria. Biomass Project, Managua University of Technology (UNI), Nicaragua.

Oil extraction with: Hexane 98%; Water 38%; Alkaline Protease 86%.

1. Pasta fermentation resulting from oil extraction

A fungus was isolated from the seeds of Jatropha Curcas in Nicaragua and identified as Rhizopus oryzae (Went & Prinsen Geerlings). Seed meal and pasta resulting from oil extraction were used as substrates for fermentation with the Rhizopus oryzae fungus.

The fungus developed well on both substrates without adding yeast, but seed husk without addition of yeast was not a good substrate. The fungus produced a broad spectrum of appropriate hydrolytic enzymes to increase oil extraction. Even the fermentation of the seeds or paste resulting from the extraction of oil by the Rhizopus oryzae fungus could be feasible to degrade the toxic substances.

Experiments showed that using the paste resulting from oil extraction as a substrate for the Rhizopus oryzae fungus and producing more oil could be better than using it as forage, particularly since there is no practical and economical way to detoxify it.

1. Seed meal as a protein supplement for livestock

Laboratory studies showed that the Jatropha Curcas seed meal containing 1% to 2% of oil residues showed levels of crude protein between 58% and 64% of which 90% was true protein. Essential amino acid levels, except lysine, were high. However, the seed meal of varieties in Cape Verde and Nicaragua was highly toxic in feeding fish, rats and chickens, while the seed meal of the Mexican variety was not toxic.

For 7 days fishmeal of the non-toxic variety was supplied, in proportion to 50% with fishmeal. Mucus was observed in the faeces, and the developmental yields of the fish were unchanged compared to the group of fish that were not fed Jatropha Curcas seed meal. The content of protein and essential amino acids in the non-toxic variety was similar to that of the toxic varieties, from Cape Verde and Nicaragua. Additionally, in experiments with rats, the efficiency index of the protein in the flour of seeds of the non-toxic variety was around 86% compared to protein from casein. This suggests that both varieties, toxic and non-toxic, are good sources of protein.But seed meal must be detoxified before it is fed to animals.

Feeding with seed flour of the non-toxic variety, without prior heat treatment, can have negative subclinical effects on the performance of animals in the long and medium term. The factors that restrict the optimal use of seed meal from both varieties, toxic and non-toxic, are: High levels of trypsin activity inhibitor (21 to 27 mg. Of trypsin inhibited per gram of dry matter); Lecithin (51 to 102 expressed as the inverse of the minimum concentration in milligrams of Jatropha seed meal per millimeter in the hemagglutination test); Phytate (concentration between 9% and 10%); Saponins (at levels between 2.6% and 3.4%); Phorbol esters present in the pulp of the seeds of the toxic variety (2.2% to 2.7% milligrams per gram,virtually absent in the Mexican variety 0.11 milligrams per gram).

Tannins, cyanogens, amylase inhibitors and glucosinolates were not detected in any of the varieties. Trypsin inhibitors, and lecithin, can be destroyed by heat treatment. The seed meal, of the toxic and non-toxic varieties, not previously treated with heat showed low levels of nitrogen degradation in the rumen. Heat treated seed meal showed an increase in nitrogen degradation in the rumen between 38% and 65%. Seed meal, of the Mexican variety, treated with heat and chemicals such as NaOH and NaOCl, or extracting the oil with 80% to 90% ethanol, methanol or ethyl ether, showed possibilities to detoxify the seed meal in toxic varieties.

1. Impacts and benefits

• Capture of atmospheric CO2. No intervention in the Carbon cycle. Desertification, deforestation and degradation in soils are avoided. Bio-diversity and ecological conservation in marginal areas are favored. Reduction in the use of primary fossil energy. Decrease of CO2 emissions (greenhouse gas).

• Economic gains according to the terms and conditions in the projects. Access to the biomass and biofuels market. Access to the carbon credits market. Obtaining certificates of reduction of CO2 emissions. Deductibility of investments. Creation of technical and commercial capacity.

• Economic gains according to the terms and conditions in the projects. Securing additional durable income. Access to biofuels. Obtaining technical assistance and training. Taking advantage of marginal unproductive soils. Decreased dependence on food agricultural crops. Greater influence in the field. rural.S prevents soil degradation and deforestation.Creation of technical and commercial capacity.

1. goals

• Sustainable production of biomass and biofuels for local consumption. Capture of atmospheric carbon dioxide (reduction of emissions). Secure alternative energy resources. Reduce interdependence and vulnerability in the supply of oil. Option against the decrease in oil reserves and others fossil fuels. Reduce CO2 emissions in the face of global climate change. Improve economic conditions in the rural sector. Regional development through new activities. Promote biodiversity and ecological conservation. Promote positive changes considering that the agricultural market in developing countries subsists accepting low prices, and in developed countries subsists through high subsidies. Promote investment in ejidos and communities without displacing their inhabitants.Promote the use of sustainable renewable energy. Take advantage of soils unsuitable for food production. Take advantage of favorable climate and soil conditions. Provide technical assistance and training to agricultural and livestock producers. Support producers and investors in the development of projects. expansion of sustainable regional crops through pilot projects Create technical and commercial capacity Have positive influence, nationally and internationally, in the government and private sectors in relation to laws and regulations on the production of biomass to obtain bio-energy Support the development infrastructure in a fair and open environment. Use of by-products derived from the production of biofuels. Generate biomass production contracts in rural regions.Obtain benefits from carbon sequestration bonds in plantations Obtain certificates for CO2 emission reduction Avoid desertification and soil degradation Do not use food for energy production Promote the formation of associations of biomass and biofuel producers that allow additional income to producers and investors in rural communities.

1. Risks

• Natural Risks: Fire, pests and diseases in crops; lower than expected productivity; droughts; floods; damaging winds and frost. Anthropogenic Factors: Invasion of land; theft of crops; vandalism; labor shortage. Political Risks: Changes in policies; instability in governments. Economic Factors: Changes in interest rates; coin; costs; falling prices of biomass, biofuels and carbon credits; land price.

1. Environmental sustainability

Sustainability or sustainability is the characteristic that preserves over time the dynamic systems on which development and life on the planet depend, within the evolutionary context of humanity. It is in the broadest sense, the dynamic condition of society. The correlation between environmental sustainability and economic development is complex. Each of the economies in the countries faces challenges that are necessarily interconnected with the environment. In some countries environmental pollution problems are solved, and natural resources are controlled relatively well, while other countries are not. This indicates that environmental fate is not usually included in the definition of development.

The environmental sustainability indices are closely related to the development potential in the countries, and are useful as a guide in the implementation and sustainability of policies related to the protection and conservation of ecosystems based on the suitable development in the long term.

According to the study on Environmental Sustainability carried out in 2005 at the initiative of the World Economic Forum, in collaboration with the Center for Environmental Legislation and Policy of Yale University, and the International Center for Earth Sciences Information Network of the University of Yale Columbia, the countries with the highest environmental sustainability indices are: Finland, Norway, Uruguay, Sweden and Iceland, in places 1,2,3,4 and 5 respectively. The countries with the lowest rates of environmental sustainability are: North Korea, Iraq, Taiwan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan, at 146, 143, 145, 144 and 142 respectively. Mexico at number 95 on the list that contains 146 countries. United States at 45.

Countries with economic wealth and high per capita income such as Saudi Arabia (place 136) and Kuwait (place 138) have very low sustainability indices. In other words, their wealth will end in the medium or short term, while Uruguay and Guyana in places 3 and 8 respectively, are not countries with high economic wealth, nor high income per capita, but have placed emphasis on the conservation of their ecosystems. considering the potential development in the long term. Generally, rich countries exert greater ecological stress by extracting resources from the environment, either from their nations or from other countries.

Sustainability has been a widely accepted goal by all countries since it was introduced by the Brundtland Commission. The characteristic of sustainability, be it economic, social, ecological, productive, etc., requires the development of methodologies to measure and assess objectively and clearly the fulfillment of sustainability requirements. Indicators of sustainability are used to perceive trends or phenomena that cannot be detected immediately or easily, and allow unambiguous understanding of the sustainability status of a system, or the critical points that threaten sustainability.

In this way, sustainability indicators contribute operationally to the concept of sustainable development in the countries, because factors intervene in the indicators that allow defining specific actions to correct errors or deviations from the desired objective. Its use allows evaluating to what extent a system complies with sustainability requirements, what are its critical points, and its evolution over time.

In the face of irrefutable evidence of the existence of limits to the development of humanity, the Brundtland Commission of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations stated, in the 1990s, that policies to create development models in countries must be adequate so that future generations have the opportunity for a quality of life, at least equal to that of present generations. It was this approach that was called Sustainable Development.

In the 1980s, researchers from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) conducted an analysis of global trends and balances. They probed the behavior of capital based on the size of families; food availability; and the amount of natural resources for the support of human life on the planet. The results of this analysis predicted severe global water and food shortages starting in 2025. However, this research did not consider the negative effects that subsequently emerged on the environment and that accelerate negative trends, such as the global warming of the planet and the production of biofuels with food grains.

The same analysis indicates that, if current trends continue, food and water shortages could appear before 2025 and reach catastrophic levels. The use of natural resources must not only be based on biology and ecology, but also on ethics, politics and sociology. None of the economies, be they capitalist or socialist, considered from the beginning the environmental sustainability that is compatible with life. We are now living the consequences for not having considered environmental sustainability. Every day there is less availability of water and enormous pollution problems that affect life and health.

In this sense, the set of circumstances and global interests of corporations and actors who want to retain their dominance, have led to more than 90% of the world's wealth being in the hands of only 1% of the population. This highly unequal distribution of global wealth negatively influences the continuation or exacerbation of old trends that do not allow the necessary changes in the right direction for sustainable development and can cause negative and unsuspected social phenomena. Development models must consider the interconnection between ecosystems; limits on natural resources; the danger of lacking natural resources such as water and fertile soils for the production of the food we consume.

The enormous scientific and technological advance has not yet shown utility to avoid the destruction of ecosystems and the extinction of species, nor to mitigate the conditions of human inequality and poverty in many countries and regions, but on the contrary, technology sometimes has caused damage to the environment.

In this sense, a different orientation is required in world economies, taking into account the protection and sustainable use of natural resources, driven by scientific and technological innovation, and by increasing social awareness. That is, economic, technological and production models radically different from those that have prevailed in recent decades, knowing that what is sustainable is compatible with life. This new orientation is essential for development in Mexico and in other countries where the elemental flow of natural resources continues to be linear, consisting of extracting, producing, selling, using and eliminating. This linear flow can be replaced by a circular flow where the residues of one process act as raw materials for another.

Never before than now, humanity has achieved such high levels of technology and scientific knowledge, nor has life on the planet been as threatened as now. Predictions about the negative effects related to climate change and the use of food to make biofuels are no longer hypotheses and become reality. This is evidenced by the most recent research and observations on climate phenomena and their effects on ecosystems that sustain life on the planet.

Even reducing greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere, the inertia of climate change and its impacts would remain throughout the next centuries. The damage is done. Leaders in rich countries where the largest amount of greenhouse gas emissions are generated that negatively affect the global environment and life there, have the task and the responsibility of reducing emissions of these gases. Countries that generate the greatest amount of greenhouse gases must be required to respond responsibly for the global damage they are causing in relation to climate change and to comply with the reduction of emissions to stabilize the atmosphere.

The damage is undoubtedly done. Climate changes negatively impact food production, water supply, the viability of ecosystems and the environmental benefits that ecosystems offer to humanity. Glaciers have had an unprecedented retreat due to global warming; entire regions have been affected; Animals and plants have been displaced or have died, due to their inability to adapt. The increasing intensity in natural disasters has generated hundreds of thousands of victims and billionaires material costs; Disease-transmitting vectors have been formed in regions where they previously did not occur.

In the study on Environmental Sustainability prepared in 2005 at the initiative of the World Economic Forum, in collaboration with the Center for Environmental Law and Policy at Yale University, and the International Center for Information Network on Earth Sciences at Columbia University, The following questions and factors were taken into consideration:

1. Are ecosystems healthy, with a tendency to improve or deteriorate?

1. Are the stresses caused by human actions in the environment mild enough that they do not harm ecosystems?

1. Are populations and social systems negatively affected by damage to ecosystems?

1. Do political institutions consider social models and attitudes, and extend networks to promote efficient responses in the population against risks and challenges in the environment?

1. Is there cooperation between countries to solve common problems related to negative circumstances in the environment?

1. Urban Air Quality: Concentration of suspended particles, and of NO ₂ and SO ₂ (gr./m ³).

1. Amount of Water Per Capita: Surface water and underground aquifers (M ³).

1. Water Quality: Concentrations of NO3, NO2 and NH3; dissolved oxygen; suspended solids; match; dissolved lead (mg./l), and fecal coliforms (N ° / 100ml).

1. Biodiversity: Percentage known at risk: plants; birds and mammals.

1. Soils: Severity in soil degradation produced by human beings.

1. Air Pollution: Emissions of: SO2; NO; volatile organic compounds (metric tons per square mile); coal consumption (billions of BTUs / square mile); number of vehicles (per square mile).

1. Pollution and Water Consumption: Chemical fertilizers per hectare; industrial organic pollutants (kg./day); emission of industrial pollutants per unit area; water consumption in relation to the potential for annual renewal of water resources.

1. Ecosystem stress: Percentage of: deforestation; loss of wetlands and areas covered by forests.

1. Garbage and Pressure of Consumption: Percentage of: households with garbage collection; sustainable methods in garbage disposal; pressure on consumers that encourages purchases and waste; nuclear waste.

1. Population Tension: Increase in the population indices that present risks in the environment.

1. Basic Livelihood of the Population: Percentage of: urban and rural population with access to good quality drinking water and electricity; calories ingested from food compared to normal total requirements.

1. Public Health: Infectious diseases for every 100,000 inhabitants; infant mortality for every thousand births.

1. Scientific and Technological Capacity: Researchers, scientists and engineers for every million inhabitants; investment in research, technology and development based on the percentage of gross domestic product; quantity of scientific literature (articles) per million inhabitants.

1. Ecology Laws and Management: Regulations on transparency and conservation of ecosystems; Percentage of the population with access to health systems; area of ​​the country protected under international regulations on ecology.

1. Conditions and Monitoring in Ecosystems: Index of variables in environmental sustainability; availability of information for sustainable development; number of stations for monitoring water quality per million inhabitants.

1. Ecological Efficiency: Production and efficient use of energy based on kilowatt hours related to gross domestic product; hydroelectric and renewable energy based on total energy produced and increase in the production and use of renewable and hydroelectric energy (%).

1. Fossil Fuels and Corruption: Retail price of gasoline and diesel; percentage of fossil fuel subsidies based on gross domestic product; corruption perception index.

1. International Cooperation: Memberships in intergovernmental organizations for environmental sustainability; preparation and presentation of reports on the environment in the country; strategies and actions for the conservation of biological biodiversity; ratification levels for protection against the effects of ozone; Organizational actions for the conservation of forests and oceans.

1. Capacity for Political Debate: For every million inhabitants, the number of environmental organizations established and operating in the country that are members of the International Organization for Environmental Conservation: civil liberty to organize themselves in the development of activities related to the protection and conservation of the environment.

1. Global Impact: Forest surfaces; ecological deficit; per capita emissions of CO ₂ and SO ₂ into the atmosphere; per capita consumption of chloro-fluoro-carbons; fishing fleets that operate with good levels of sustainability; dangerous nuclear plants; financial contributions to programs on the global environment; accumulation of toxic products in soils; loss of land for crops; loss of wetlands; percentage of government budget destined to protect ecosystems; environmental impact assessment; compliance with national and international environmental laws; waste recycling range; subsidies for agriculture, fishing, consumption of water, electricity and fossil fuels.

Global Sustainability Indexes 29.2 the lowest; 75.1 the highest.

References

1. Productivity projection

Projected productivity estimate per plant under favorable growing conditions

Product Kg.	Years 1-2	Years 3-4	Years 5-6	Years 7-8	Years 9-10	Years 11-30	Average 1-30
Seed	0.10 0.80	2.00 4.00	4.50 5.50	6.00 7.00	7.50 8.50	9.00 10.0	5,400
Oil 35%	.035 .280	0.70 1.40	1.60 1.90	2.10 2.45	2.60 3.00	3.15 3.50	1,900
Bio Diesel	.034 .270	0.67 1.36	1.55 1.85	2.03 2.38	2.52 2.90	3.06 3.40	1,840
Glycerin	.003 .025	.060 .130	.150 .170	.180 .230	.250 .290	.300 .340	0.180
Co 2 Capture	1.60 3.20	4.80 6.40	8.00	8.00	8.00	8.00	6.00
Pasta	0.05 0.45	1.5 2.0	2.5 3.0	3.5 4.0	4.5 5.0	5.5 6.0	3.17

1. Characteristics of the seeds.

Characteristics of the seeds
Content	Mass 60%	Peel 40%	Flour
Crude protein	25.6	4.5	61.2
Lipids (crude oil)	56.8	1.4	1.2
Ashes	3.6	6.1	10.4
Neutral detergent fiber	3.5	85.8	8.1
Acid detergent fiber	3.0	75.6	6.8
Lignin acid detergent	0.1	47.5	0.3
Gross energy (MJ / Kg.)	30.5	19.5	18.0
Source: J. de Jongh, 03-15-2006, edited by W. Rijssenbeek.

1. Properties of biodiesel

Properties of biodiesel

Specific weight	0.870 to 0.89
Viscosity 40 ° C	3.70 to 5.80
Ignition point	130 ° C
High Calorific Value (btu / lb.)	16,978 to 17,996
Low Calorific Value (btu / lb.)	15,700 to 16,735
Sulfur (% by weight)	0.00 to 0.0024

Formula for experimental biodiesel production

Jatropha Oil	Alcohol 95% Pure Methanol	Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda)
A liter	200 milliliters	Five grams

Process:

1. Mix sodium hydroxide with alcohol (methanol) until sodium hydroxide dissolves. Add alcohol-sodium hydroxide solution to oil heated to 60 ° C, mix gently. Leave solution to stand. The Bio-Diesel remains on the surface and the glycerin at the bottom. Extract the glycerin and the Bio-Diesel. Wash the Bio-Diesel with water (spray) 2 or 3 times to remove the soapy part.

1. Plant botany

1. Height: 4 to 8 meters high. Productive life: 30 to 40 years. Stem: erect and thick branches. Tree wood: light (low density). Green leaves: 6 to 15 cm. length and width.Oval fruit 40 mm. length approx. Each fruit contains 2 to 3 seeds. Black seeds: length 11 to 30 mm. Seeds width 7 to 11mm. 1000 Fresh Seeds = 0.750 to 1.0 Kg. approx. 2000 Dry Seeds = 0.750 to 1.0 Kg. approx. Oil in seeds 30 to 40%. Branches contain whitish latex. Five roots in sprouted seeds. One central root and 4 lateral ones in sprouted seed. Without leaves in drought and winter their development remains latent. It does not bear cold or prolonged frosts. 80% of oil is unsaturated. Main oils: oleic and linoleic mainly.

According to research and collection in herbaria in Mexico, two additional species of Jatropha have been found in addition to Jatropha Curcas and they are:

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