1.- Administration

1.1.- Concept: The Administration's brief definition could be "the function of making things happen through others", or "obtaining results through others". Administration is a process that is based on the planning, organization, direction, coordination and control of resources.

Planning - means devising a course of action.

Organization - mobilize the organization's material and human resources to implement the plans.

Direction - provide guidance, map employees to get them to do their jobs well, on time, etc.

Coordination - making sure that the resources and planned activities work harmoniously.

Control - this is about monitoring plans to make sure they are being properly followed.

The objective of the administration is that the goals set by the company are fulfilled in an optimal way, that everyone does their job and outlines plans for the growth of the organism that is administered.

1.2.- Administration Characteristics:

Its Universality. It occurs wherever a social organism exists, because there always has to be systematic coordination of means. The administration occurs for the same in the state, in the army, in the company, in a religious society, etc. And the essential elements in all those classes of Administration will be the same, although logically there are accidental variants.

Its specificity. Although the administration is always accompanied by other phenomena of a different nature (accounting, productive, mechanical, legal functions, etc.), the administrative phenomenon is specific and different from those that it accompanies. You can be a great production engineer (as a technician) and a lousy administrator.

Your temporary unit. Although stages, phases and elements of the administrative phenomenon are distinguished, it is unique and, therefore, at any time in the life of a company, all or most of the administrative elements are occurring, to a greater or lesser degree. Thus, for example, to the plans, for that reason one does not stop commanding, controlling, organizing, etc.

Its hierarchical unity. All those who have the character of heads in a social organism, participate, in different degrees and modalities, in the same administration. Thus, for example, in a company they form a single administrative body from the General Manager to the last butler.

Administration follows a purpose. A condition of the administration is that an objective is implicit or specifically stated since the resources are managed to reach a certain end.

It is a means of having an impact on human life, that is, the administration influences its environment and is generally associated with the efforts of a group.

It is achieved by, with and through efforts. To participate in administration requires leaving the tendency to run everything by oneself and having tasks accomplished with and through the efforts of others.

Administration is intangible. Their presence is evidenced by the result of the efforts.

Those who practice it are not necessarily the owners; that is, administrator and owner are not necessarily synonymous.

EVOLUTION

Administrative theories.

The historical circumstances that led to the emergence of administration as a scientific discipline go back to the 19th century. The XIX century is characterized by enormous economic, social and political changes. From the economic point of view, by the definitive collapse of the feudal system and the consolidation of the capitalist production system, which began in England and is known as the Industrial Revolution. The social changes of the time were significant due to the total rupture of the servant's and the fief's relations to the feudal lord and the establishment of free-trade relations. From the political point of view, the changes are evidenced by the fall of the monarchical regime and the implantation of the model of representative democracy that was born from the French Revolution.

The changes produced by the Industrial Revolution and the French Revolution extend to a greater or lesser extent to other continents. This environment constitutes the most appropriate framework for the scientific advance that is unusual, in successive periods and particularly, in regard to this twentieth century. Scientific administration is the result of these advances, because from now on it is a question of analyzing the particular and general problems of the organization with a scientific method.

Over time, various theories have emerged that try to frame what for their authors are the principles of effective administration. In the following pages is a table that exposes and compares the most important theories that have emerged in the contemporary world.

	Scientific management	Classic Administration (also called “school of bosses”)
origins	Frederic Taylor	Fayol (1841-1925). It arises from the need to find guidelines for managing complex organizations. He was the first to systematize managerial behavior.
Fundamentals	Rationalization of labor and saving of materials, in order to increase profits.	Administrative functions are divided into the following parts: technical, commercial, financial, security and accounting; As basic functions of the company other than the administration and none of the five essential functions above, they have the task of formulating the general action program of the company, of constituting its social body, of coordinating efforts and of harmonizing acts; These powers are designated to the administration.
Techniques	Production Techniques, Times and Movements, Incentive Systems	Division of labor: the more specialized people are, the more efficient they will be. Authority and respect: managers have the formal authority that gives them the right to command. Discipline: members must respect norms and conventions. receive instructions only from one person.Centralization of power: the manager retains the final responsibility.Chair chain: stepwise separation from the head is divided into the mentioned sectors and thus goes down.
Contributions	More perfect methods of study and organization of work processes in the production, specialization and training of workers, as well as the piece-rate wage system.	The steps of: planning, organizing, directing, coordinating and controlling are established; as fundamental parts of the administrative process.
Disadvantages	Economic success is preferred to the physical well-being of staff. Non-scientific foundations for increasing productivity.

	School of human behavior	Neoclassical Theory APO
Origins	George Elton Mayo	Peter Drucker, emerged in the 1950s. "Management by objectives is a management model through which all managers of an organization establish goals for their administrations, at the beginning of each period or fiscal year, preferably coinciding with the fiscal year of the company, in line with the general goals of the organization set by the shareholders, through management ”
Fundamentals	It follows that it is not the material factors, but the psychological and social factors that contribute most to the growth of labor productivity. The organization is studied as a group of people. This theory is inspired by psychology. It is based on the confidence and autonomy of the employee.	1 Emphasis on the practice of the administrative process (planning, directing, coordinating and controlling) 2 Reaffirmation of the classic postulates such as: 1 Linear structure (hierarchies). 2 Line relationships and consultancies. 3 Departmentalization. 4 Authority and responsibility. 3 Emphasis that: the objectives, the activities, the authority were clear and precise. Good relations. 4 Emphasis on objectives and results 5 Eclecticism: the scientific is taken from Taylor, the guideline from Fayol; and of human relations to seek harmony in the organization.
Techniques	· Psychological · Sociological	APO is an effort management technique through planning and administrative control based on the principle that, to achieve results, the organization needs to first define what business it is operating in and where it intends to go. It established that the strategies should analyze the internal environment (the weaknesses and strengths of the organization), as well as the external environment (locate opportunities and threats)
Contributions	Definition of work as an important activity in man, as well as recognition of the importance of social and individual relationships. A) He showed that the psychological aspect is of great importance in administrative tasks. B) Demonstrated the importance of communication C) Demonstrated the importance of informal groups within the company
Disadvantages	Idealism regarding human relationships is sometimes inoperative. In addition, it is criticized that it is based on experiments carried out in a single company, with certain people who had the same social and cultural level, since these factors affect human behavior.	The failure was that the companies fell into an autocracy on the part of the managers because the objectives that they established were more personal than institutional.
	Bureaucratic Theory or School of the social system	Structuralist Theory
origins	Max Weber	This trend appeared in the late fifties as a consequence of low productivity, since the scientific and human relationship trends had taken productivity or personnel into account, but in isolation, and it was made up of a group of psychologists and sociologists who they are dedicated to studying human behavior.
Fundamentals	The administrative process is approached from the social or intercultural relations point of view. It is based excessively on the structure of the company and the hierarchy that each one occupies.	Structure Persons Ambient
Techniques	Legal nature of the rules (there is nothing that does not have regulations or steps to follow) Formal character of relationships (everything is in writing or everything must have a role) Impersonal character of relationships (people do not know each other except by positions) Hierarchy of authority (example in national administration clerk 1, clerk 2) Division of labor (people only do “their” job they are unable to solve) Routines and procedures (employee relies on the same methods of doing the job) Technical competence and merit.	It originated from the bureaucratic administration since it was not flexible in the face of changing society.
Contributions		Structuralism sought to understand reality only through structure. I study the interdependence between its foundations (environment, people, company) it is stated that "the whole is greater than the sum of the parts"
Disadvantages	Just as in the Venezuelan public administration system it had dysfunctions due to: 1 excess paperwork and formalism. 2 hierarchization and depersonalization of relationships. (We speak of charges and not of people) 3 exhibition of signs of authority (protagonism. 4 resistance to change.	Structuralist theory points more to the problems and critical aspects of organizations than to the solutions themselves. It does not present a theory of organization: it only criticizes hitherto existing theories and offers a method of analysis and comparison.

	School of decision theory	Contingency theory	Theory z
origins	Herbert a. Simon used this theory to explain human behavior in organizations, based on the fact that all the people who work in the company make decisions and this is important.	This theory was born when carrying out a series of investigations to find out which are the most functional structures, emphasizing that there is nothing absolute in organizations, that everything is relative and depends on the approach that is given to the result that is obtained. Contingency means: uncertain or unusual that may or may not be.	William g. Ouchi This technique aims to ensure that the administration achieves better results through less complex systems.
Fundamentals	Rationalization of administration based on Decision Making. This theory aims to minimize uncertainty as far as possible, so that the decisions made are as real as possible and better results are obtained. The administrative man is one who has the following characteristics: - Look for the satisfactory way of doing things, not the best way as the common man. - He never looks for the maximum profit, he looks for the right profit. - It does not seek the optimal price to generate high profits, it seeks the reasonable price. This type of man makes decisions without looking for all the alternatives.	The theory is based on the fact that political, economic and social changes as well as cultural changes affect the organization and that what works in one company may or may not work in another. He considers that there are two factors that affect organizations: 1.- The environment: everything that surrounds the company externally. 2.- Technology: the way they work their production, each company has its own technology and this is considered the internal aspect. Consider that companies have three levels: 1.- The strategic or institutional.- They are shareholders, directors and senior executives. 2.- the intermediate level.- is made up of all the people who are between the strategic level and the operational level (middle managers, finance, production, etc.). 3.-Operational level.- It is the lower level of the company, where operations or tasks are executed (workers).	It implies a set of humanized values: to. Long-term employees. b. Development of non-specialized careers. c. Staff self-control. d. Collective participation in Decision Making.
Techniques	indicates that the stages of the process that must be carried out are: 1.-perception of the situation. 2.-Analysis. 3.-definition of the problem or objective. 4.-Search for the alternative. 5.-Selection of the alternative. 6.-Evaluation of the alternative. 7.-Implementation of the alternative.		Humanistic Self-realization Sociological Economic.
Contributions	It indicates that whatever the theory or system used in the organization, decisions must be taken into account as the main and decisive aspect and that it depends on the environment.	It takes into account both internal and external environments.	Involve workers in the decision-making process.
Disadvantages	Sometimes it is limited to the economic approach and reasoning of uncertainties.	It only takes very specific factors from the organization.	It requires high awareness of high levels and

THE HUMAN RESOURCE IN ORGANIZATIONS

It takes years to recruit, train and develop the necessary personnel for the formation of competitive work groups, that is why organizations have begun to consider human resources as their most important capital and its correct administration as one of their most decisive tasks. However, the administration of this resource is not a very simple task, each person is a phenomenon subject to the influence of many variables, and among them the differences in skills and behavior patterns are very diverse. If the organizations are made up of people, their study constitutes the basic element to study the organizations, and particularly the Human Resources Administration.

It is definitive that workers must be given reasons and incentives to influence their behavior; since they have the freedom to choose when to have an attitude of cooperation or resistance towards authority (although they do not express it); They also decide their share of commitment to the objectives of the organization and because people cannot be controlled in the same way as tools, the management of the administration must be concerned with ensuring the contribution of the individual efforts of its members and a way achieving this is by emphasizing motivation.

Personality and conduct: perception in the organization.

Our senses provide us with raw data from the outside world, these initial data are completely meaningless so an interpretation process is required to find the relationship with us that is perception, a process by which the individual connotes of meaning to the environment.

Giving meaning to the environment requires the integration of sensory information with cognitive elements such as with our memories, with our basic assumptions about what the world is, with our ideal models, etc., with the ultimate goal of building the world. around us.

Perception mainly comprises two processes:

1. The recoding or selection of all the information that comes to us from the outside, reducing complexity and facilitating its storage in memory; an attempt to go further to predict future events and thus reduce surprises.

Perception as transformer of reality.

Through the perceptual process we are able to transform or alter reality by adding information that does not come with the stimulus. When we see a dog, for example, we are not only perceiving the animal, but adding other components such as, say, all our memories in which some dog participated in some way; If in the past we were bitten by a dog, possibly the act of perceiving the current dog is associated with fear. Consequently, the act of perceiving the dog has an emotional component that is part of our perception, but that is not involved in the stimulus itself.

Perception and conflicts.

Every organization is characterized by having a central objective which unifies the actions and resources of the organization based on its achievement; Achieving this goal is the raison d'être of the organization and therefore, achieving the objective influences how the organization is structured and how it is managed. The way in which individuals and groups understand the central objective is decisive in explaining their actions within the organization. As we will present below, precisely in the difference in how the central objective of the organization is understood is an important element for generating conflict.

Perception is a determining element because although the goal of the organization is one, each group in the organization has a perception of what the goal is; It may even be the case that each group that makes up the organization has a different idea of ​​the end of the organization and consequently, they will have a distorted idea of ​​the purpose of that group and its importance within the organization.

The reason for the difference in perception is determined by aspects such as personal interests, inadequate intergroup integration work, inequality in the distribution of resources, ambition for power, difference between personal and / or group goals, etc.

The effect of conflict on the organization is very varied, it can establish a healthy situation of demand for better performance to achieve adequate treatment when allocating resources; On the contrary, it can be an insurmountable barrier to the achievement of goals.

Perception and stress.

The response to stress is the effort of our body to adapt to change, or more accurately, the effort to maintain or regain a certain balance. Then if we cannot maintain this personal balance we will experience stress. If no external threat is perceived, there will be no need to adopt an adaptive posture and there will be no stress.

Through the perceptual process we will decide what stress will produce us to become a stressor. There are, say, universal stressors, in the sense that most people can generate stress when exposed to them, for example: light, noise, heat, cold, etc., this has a lot to do with the space in the that the worker develops and whose influence on his performance can be very high There are other types of stressors, more subtle, but with much more damaging effects than the previous ones: traffic jams, role conflicts, intergroup conflicts, difficulties economic, etc., enter this line. For these, the perceptual process is very relevant, because it involves interpretations of the world around us, of actions, of situations, etc.

The perception-conflict-stress triad is an everyday thing at the organizational and personal level; the wrong perception of a situation can generate a conflict that can be personal or interpersonal, and the conflict in turn can generate stress which definitely affects the development of an employee and therefore the organization.

Factors that influence perception

There are types of perception errors, some of which are primarily due to the perceiver and others are a result of the perceived characteristics.

The preceptor can be influenced by:

A.- Stereotyping is the most frequent source of perceptual deviations, in the organization there is a tendency to stereotype according to the position and time in the organization, for example the idea that a boss must behave and dress formally and offer a deal to a certain extent distant from his subordinates and even that he has time in the company and a certain age is a widely marked stereotype in our society and that gives this person moral authority before others and instills respect; It is important to manage this within the organization so that there is no confusion about authority (a boss can be young, pretty, friendly, and very effective in her work). It is important to remember that we all stereotype according to our education and experiences;reason why the perception must be taken into account when creating an image of the company since the general public is fixed not only in the way our employees act but also in their image.

B.- The halo effect is a perceptual phenomenon that has received great attention due to its incidence in the evaluation of subordinates since there is a general tendency to focus attention on a single characteristic, whether favorable or unfavorable, thus forming a « halo »that surrounds and affects the consideration and evaluation of other characteristics.

If the predominant characteristic is favorable, the other characteristics will probably be considered as favorable; if, on the other hand, the dominant characteristic is unfavorable, the evaluation of the other characteristics would be rather negative. An example is when someone says "that worker is messy and is late but he is very optimistic and cheers his colleagues"; This halo of "good person" influences in such a way that their faults are not taken into account very much and the evaluation of their work is favorable.

C.- Projection, a defense mechanism, is a means or way of transferring or projecting the blame for one's deficiencies on an object or another person.

D.- The perceived. The perceptual deviations resulting from stereotyping, the halo effect, and the projection are attributed to the perceiver, but there are also errors that are induced by those who are perceived. The organizational position of the person being perceived is significant. Predisposed characteristics are attributed to who is perceived by reason of their status. Closely related to the status is the role, that is, the behavior that is expected and is prescribed by the organizational position that one has. The visibility of certain characteristics of the perceived forces one to be attentive to those characteristics and, possibly, makes them ignore more significant elements of judgment that are not so easily visualized or determined.

Motivation and behavior

In order to predict the behavior of people, a manager must know what are the reasons and needs that make people produce a certain action at a certain time.

Behavior is generally motivated by reaching a certain goal or objective. The motive acts by causing an activity and indicating the direction of the behavior. There are two factors that act as determinants of the strength of a motif, they are: Expectation and accessibility.

Expectation is the probability that an individual perceives of being able to satisfy a need according to his experience; and accessibility reflects the limitations that a person may encounter in the medium in order to satisfy a need.

From what has been mentioned so far, it follows that one of the manager's basic responsibilities is to provide the necessary motivation to his collaborators, since this is one of the factors that limit the achievement of organizational objectives and because it constitutes the indispensable element for generation of an organizational climate, facilitating interpersonal relationships, communication, trust and team spirit.

Motivation and motivational cycle concept

Motivation: It is the process that impels a person to act in a certain way or, at least, originates a propensity towards a specific behavior. This impulse to act can come from the environment (external stimulus) or it can be generated by the individual's internal mental processes. In this last aspect, motivation is associated with the individual's system of cognition, with cognition being what people know about themselves and the environment that surrounds them, each person's cognitive system implies their personal values, which are influenced by their physical and social environment, for their physiological structure, for their needs and experiences.

Motivational cycle: The starting point of the motivational cycle is given by the emergence of a need. This need breaks the state of equilibrium in which a person finds himself, producing a state of tension that leads the individual to develop a behavior capable of relieving tension and freeing him or her from nonconformity and imbalance. In certain opportunities, the need is not met and may cause frustration or compensation (Transfer to another objective or goal)

Motivation Theories

Motivation has been an object of study in recent decades that has given rise to numerous theories, of which the most important have given rise to a number of investigations. We can classify these theories in the following way:

Content theories: It groups those theories that consider everything that can motivate people.

Process theories: It groups those theories that consider the way (process) in which the person becomes motivated.

A.- Content theories

• Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs.

• Herzberg's two-factor theory, Alderfer's theory of existence, relationship, and progress, McClelland's theory of three needs.

B.- Process theories

• Vroom's Theory of Expectation.

• Adams Equity Theory - Skinner's Behavior Modification Theory

A.- Content theories

Theory of Human Needs - Abraham Maslow:

According to this theory, the inner spring of a person is constituted by a series of needs in hierarchical order, ranging from the most material to the most spiritual. Five levels are identified within this hierarchy:

1. Physiological: They have to do with the minimum subsistence conditions of man: Food, housing, clothing, etc.

1. Safety: It is related to the tendency to conserve against dangerous situations. Conservation of your property, your job, etc. Social: Man by nature has the need to relate, to group informally, as a family, with friends or formally in organizations. Esteem: At this point in the pyramid the individual needs more than just being a member of a group, it is necessary to receive recognition from others in terms of respect, status, prestige, power, etc. Self-realization: It consists of developing to the maximum the potential of each one, it is a permanent self-improvement feeling. Autonomy, independence, self-control are an example of it.

Characteristics of the operation of Maslow's theory:

1. Only unmet needs influence people's behavior, that unmet need does not generate any behavior.

1. Physiological needs are born with man, the rest of the needs arise over time. As the person manages to control his basic needs, higher order needs gradually appear. Not all individuals feel needs for self-realization because it is an individual conquest. The highest needs do not arise as the lowest are being met. They can be concomitant but the basic ones prevail over the higher ones. The basic needs require for their satisfaction a relatively short motivational cycle as opposed to the higher needs that require a longer cycle.

Observations to Maslow's theory:

• For some critics, the author does not recognize that people can vary the order of the hierarchy. For others, the model is not practical from the point of view of managment because it describes the operation of people, but does not consider the most appropriate way to provide incentives from the organization.

Herzberg's two-factor theory:

While Maslow supports his theory of motivation in the diverse human needs (approach oriented towards the interior of the person), Herzberg bases his theory on the external environment and on the work of the individual (approach oriented towards the exterior).

The two-factor theory was based on the studies that Frederick Herzberg together with his research group developed in companies in Pittsburgh, United States. The research consisted of a questionnaire in which engineers and accountants were asked about the factors that produced satisfaction and dissatisfaction in their work. From this research, two types of factors were separated, which are shown in the following graph.

Hygienic factors: the presence of these factors allow the person not to feel unsatisfied in their work, but does not imply that they generated the necessary motivation to achieve the objectives. Examples of these factors are: Working conditions, supervision received, salary, etc.

Motivational factors: it is represented as the energy that gives the necessary impulse to lead people to deposit their forces in the organization in order to achieve results. Examples: The degree of responsibility, recognition, the possibility of progress, etc.

In order to achieve job satisfaction, the author of this theory proposes job enrichment, which consists of making them a challenge by increasing responsibility and goals.

McClelland's Theory of Three Needs.

In order to understand motivation, this author classified needs into three categories:

Need for achievement: Drive to excel, to strive to succeed. This classification groups those people who put success in their actions before the awards, look for situations in which they can assume responsibilities and dislike the achievement of merit by chance.

Need for power: Need for others to perform a behavior that without their indication they would not have observed. People who own it enjoy investing as "boss," try to influence others, and are more concerned with influencing than with their own performance.

Need for affiliation: Desire to establish interpersonal relationships. Those who have it prefer situations of cooperation to those of competition, the former standing out for a high degree of collaboration.

B.- Process theories

Vroom expectations model: explains that motivation is the result of multiplying three factors:

Valencia: Demonstrates the level of desire of a person to achieve a certain goal or objective. This level of desire varies from person to person and in each of them it can vary over time, being conditioned by the experience of each individual.

Expectation: This is represented by the conviction that the person has that the effort put into his work will produce the desired effect. Expectations depend to a great extent on the perception that the person has of himself, if the person considers that he has the necessary capacity to achieve the objective, he will assign a high expectation to him, otherwise he will assign a low expectation.

Instrumentality: It is represented by the judgment made by the person that once the work is done, the organization values ​​it and receives its reward.

Functioning of the model: it does not act based on unmet needs or the application of rewards and punishments, but on the contrary, it considers people as thinking beings whose perceptions and estimates of the probability of occurrence have a significant influence on their behavior.

This model is closely related to that of behavior modification, since managers can use the information obtained about the valences assigned to the rewards by employees, in order to act a posteriori on their behaviors.

Stacy Adams Equity Model

He believes that employees, in addition to being interested in obtaining rewards for their performance, also want them to be equitable, which makes motivation more complex. In other words, there is a tendency to compare contributions (effort) and results (rewards), but also to make comparisons with other people, whether in the organization or not. If the value of the contribution / results relationship that the person perceives is equal to that of other people, they will consider that the situation is fair and there will be no tension; on the contrary, in case the comparison shows that the employee considers himself excessively rewarded, he will try to compensate that excess with behavior such as working with more intensity, influencing his colleagues and dependents in the same way, etc.Those employees who develop feelings of inequality will find themselves in a situation of tension that they will try to eliminate or reduce in many different ways. Eg Reduction of effort, request for higher payment, absenteeism, lateness, theft, etc.

The ability of managers and administrators to handle these situations depends on the possibility of analyzing for each employee the sensitivity they have regarding equity. In other words, there are employees who may be more "sensitive" and others more "benevolent". Identifying the employees that fall into each category would help managers identify who might experience inequality in a given situation and to what extent it might affect their behaviors.

BF Skinner's Behavior Modification Theory:

He says that we are all a product of the stimuli we receive from the outside world. If the environment is sufficiently specified, the actions of individuals can be accurately predicted. The statement contained in the preceding paragraph is difficult to apply in its entirety because the environment cannot be specified so completely as to be able to predict behavior. Despite the criticism of his work, the concept of "positive reinforcement" stands out from it. Positive reinforcement consists of rewards for a job well done, producing changes in behavior, generally in the desired sense. Negative reinforcement is constituted by threats of sanctions, which generally produces a change in behavior but in an unpredictable and undesirable way.The punishment produced as a consequence of misconduct does not imply the suppression of doing things wrong, nor does it ensure that the person is willing to behave in a given way, at most he can learn to avoid punishments.

The author of this theory proposes as an example the case of a person who is subject to punishment for not treating the client well. The mere punishment does not teach the person how to serve a client, but it is likely that they will learn to avoid contact with the client (escape behavior). The experts in the subject consider that managers and administrators know very little about positive reinforcement and that it could be used to interest people activities.

There is also what is called the practice of non-reinforcement, which is a way of conditioning the behavior of a worker. If an employee is constantly complaining about his job and is ignored or rewarded, it is highly likely that the employee will eventually stop complaining.

Group conduct

In theory it is said that a group is that element in the organization that is made up of 2 or more employees who interact in such a way that the performance of each member is under the influence of the behavior of the other members. In companies, 2 types of groups are established: the "formal" groups which are those established by the organization; and the "informal" that are those that are established in parallel with other interests (friendship, professional interest, etc.). Both types are formed to satisfy various types of needs such as:

• Security: to carry out a job better… Social: for the interest of friendship….. Prestige: to identify with a certain "elite"… EconomicAttraction: share the same professional interests… Goals: common objectives or the achievement of a goal in the organization…

CHANGES IN THE ORGANIZATION.

The concept of organizational development is closely linked to the concepts of change and adaptive capacity of the organization being changed. Organizational development starts from dynamic concepts such as:

a) A new concept of organization;

b) Concept of organizational culture;

c) Concept of change;

d) Concept of development;

e) Phases of the organization

f) Criticism of traditional structures

ORGANIZATION CONCEPT

"An organization is the coordination of different activities of individual participants in order to carry out planned transactions with the environment."

Every organization operates in a certain environment and its existence and survival depend on how it relates to that environment. Therefore, it must be structured and streamlined according to the conditions and circumstances in which it operates. This makes organizations collectively aware of their destinies and the orientation to achieve them. They develop a new social awareness of the participants, who, along with their particular experience, their personal past and their self-awareness, define their role in relation to their organization.

ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE CONCEPT

"Organizational culture" is the name of the way of life that each organization develops in its members. Some organizations manage to constantly renew their culture while maintaining their integrity and personality, while others remain with their culture tied to outdated and outdated patterns. Organizational Development considers that to change an organization it is necessary to change its culture. The climate of the organization is very important for this since it is intimately linked to morality and the satisfaction of the needs of its members. The climate can be healthy or unhealthy, hot or cold, negative or positive, satisfactory or unsatisfactory, depending on how the participants feel about the organization. So that the organization can change the culture and the organizational climate,You need to have represented innovative capacity or adaptability, that is, the capacity to solve problems and react to the changing and unstable demands of the environment. You must be flexible, receptive and transparent to new ideas, have an identity so as not to deviate your objectives, a realistic perception of the environment coupled with an ability to investigate, diagnose and understand the environment and integration among the participants, so that the organization can behave like an organic.a realistic perception of the environment together with an ability to investigate, diagnose and understand the environment and integration among the participants, so that the organization can behave like an organic.a realistic perception of the environment together with an ability to investigate, diagnose and understand the environment and integration among the participants, so that the organization can behave like an organic.

CONCEPT OF CHANGE

The general environment that surrounds organizations is too dynamic and requires high adaptability as a basis for survival. The decade of the sixties was the »decade of the explosion» and characterized conditions for the emergence of OD as were a highly dynamic general environment, which involved the explosion of knowledge, technology, communications, and the economy and economy. internationalization of markets, shorter product life, the growing importance of marketing. This creates a whole new set of demands on the administrator. The changes that are taking place in the modern world make it necessary to revitalize and rebuild our organizations.

DEVELOPMENT CONCEPT

The natural tendency of any organization is to grow and develop. Development is a slow and gradual process that leads to the exact knowledge of itself and the full realization of its potential. Thus, the development of an organization allows you to:

1. A deep and real knowledge of itself and its possibilities; A deep knowledge of the environment in which it operates; Adequate planning and successful execution.

The DO. stresses that for an organization to achieve a certain level of development they must use different change strategies. There are three kinds of change strategies:

1. Evolutionary change: it is minimal and it is within expectations and conveniences. There is a tendency to repeat and reinforce strong and efficient solutions, and to abandon weak and weak solutions; Revolutionary change: this change is generally rapid, intense, brutal, it goes beyond and rejects old expectations and introduces new ones. Systematic development: they are designed explicit models of what the organization should be compared to what it is.

WHAT IS ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

In principle, organizational development is any planned change of cultural and structural modifications, applied to an organization that visualizes a series of social technologies, in such a way that the organization is enabled to diagnose, plan and implement those modifications with or without external assistance. It is intended to change the attitudes, values, behaviors and structure of the organization, so that it can better adapt to new situations, markets, technologies, problems and challenges that constantly arise in increasing progression.

DO also covers the entire system of an organization and the planned modification, to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of the organization. Every organization interacts with the environment: influences the environment and receives its influences.

a) BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF DO

The basic assumptions that are considered the most important:

Fast and constant variation of the environment. The modern world is characterized by rapid changes and in explosive progression. There are scientific, technological, economic changes, etc., that act and influence the development and success of organizations in general (industrial companies, service companies, public administration, hospitals, universities, etc.).

Interaction between the organization and the environment. The organization must be able to perceive and make adaptive change in the face of external stimuli.

Individual goals and organizational goals. It is possible to integrate the goals of individuals with the objectives of the organization, in a plan in which the meaning of work is really stimulating and rewarding and provides opportunities for personal development.

Organizational change planned.

Need for participation and commitment. The planned change is a collective conquest and not the result of the work of few people.

Variety of DO models and strategies There is no ideal or optimal strategy for DO

DO APPLICATIONS

There are certain organizational conditions that require application and use of OD, the essential condition is that someone, in a strategic position of the organization, feels the need for modification, OD programs can be applied to the following types of organizational conditions or felt needs of change:

1. a) Need to change cultural norms, that is, the organizational culture. b) Need to change structures and positions; that is, the formal aspects of the organization.c) Need to improve intergroup collaboration

DO MODELS

The DO requires, jointly, structural changes in the formal organization (changes in the organization chart, in the methods and processes, routines and work procedures, etc.) and behavioral changes (in the organizational culture, in interpersonal relationships and intergroup, etc.).

The study of organizations presents the fusion of two trends: on the one hand, the study of structure, and on the other, that of human behavior in organizations, integrated through systematic treatment. Systems theory brought together structural and behavioral aspects and henceforth allowed the emergence of various OD models.

DO models are related to:

a) Structural changes;

b) Behavioral changes

c) Structural behavioral changes

a.- DO MODELS RELATED TO STRUCTURAL CHANGES

There are changes, generally initiated by the administration, that affect the situation or work environment of an individual. The main structural changes are:

1. Changes in operating methods:

a) Ways of doing the work;

b) Location of work;

c) Arrangement of work areas;

d) Nature of the materials used;

e) Nature of the factory and facilities;

f) Machinery, tools and equipment;

g) Security and maintenance practices;

h) Operational standards;

1. Product changes:

a) Specification of the products;

b) Specification of the processes;

c) Component materials;

d) Quality standards;

1. Changes in the organization:

a) organization structure and attribution of responsibility (organizational chart)

b) Supervision levels;

c) Extension of the delegation of authority;

d) Size and nature of the working groups;

e) Supervision of the working groups;

f) Assignment of specific tasks to individuals

Changes in the work environment:

a) Working conditions;

b) Reward and punishment systems;

c) Performance standards, and

d) Guidelines and methods of action.

b.- DO MODELS RELATED TO CHANGES IN BEHAVIOR

Most of the models related exclusively to changes in behavior are used to drive greater participation and communication within the organization. The DO models oriented towards behavioral variables are as follows:

a) Team development;

b) Provision of additional information;

c) Transactional analysis;

d) Confrontation meetings;

e) Treatment of intergroup conflict;

f) Laboratory of sensitivity,

DO STAGES

Diagnosis, action planning, action implementation and evaluation. Each type of confrontation must be submitted to the four stages of the DO

1. Diagnosis: it is indicated with an inventory of the situation, from the moment the organization and its environment are confronted, the first structural alterations are observed; The relationships between groups of participants are analyzed, from which both structural and behavioral changes arise.

2. Action planning: here the change methods are designed, capable of directing the performance of the system in the desired direction. Exchange actions can be:

• Educational: designed to change the expectations of taxpayers; Structural: through the modification of the division of labor, the contribution contract, incentives, etc.; A change in the basic transactional strategy of the organization.

3. Implementation of the action: it is the stage in which the commitment of the participants is obtained and the necessary resources for change are provided.

4.Evaluation: it is the stage that closes the process, works as a closed circuit, The result of the evaluation implies the modification of the diagnosis, which leads to new diagnoses, new planning, implementation, etc., and so on, there must be a moment in which the process acquires its own dynamics and begins to develop without the need for external interference.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

• Alvarez, Guillermo. The perception of the organization: key to understanding the behavior of the individual in the organization. Inter-American Journal of Occupational Psychology. Vol 11, Numbers 1 and 2, 1992.Chiavenato, Idalberto. Introduction to the general theory of administration McGraw-Hill InteramericanaChiavenato, Idalberto. Human Resources Administration (Chapter II) McGraw Hill Course on Management (Chapter VII) Frederick Herzberg: Business Administration Magazine: "Once again, how do you motivate your staff? Gary Kreps: Communication in organizations (Chapter VIII) Gibson, James L. and others. Organizations Conduct, structure, process. Mexico: McGraw Hill / Interamericana de México, 1990.Ivancevich, John M., and Matteson Michael T. Estrés y trabajo. Mexico: Editorial Trillas, 1992.Keith Davis - John Newstrom:Human behavior at work (Chapter VI) Kenneth Blanchard - Paul Hersey: Administration and human behavior (Chapter II and III) Morales, Francisco J, and Olza, Miguel. Psychology and Social Work. Spain: Edit. Mac Graw Hill, 1996.Santiago Lazzatti: Managment. Functions, styles and development (Chapter III) Stephen Robbins: Organizational Behavior (Chapter V) Waterman and Peters: In search of excellence (Chapter III)In search of excellence (Chapter III)In search of excellence (Chapter III)

Download the original file