From there, Management by Objectives is born, which is based on these theories. His approach is that an organization can develop interesting productivity reserves if, instead of defining a single way of doing work, it defines the expected results of each work group and allows them to innovate in the way of achieving those results or objectives.
In return, the results to be obtained are specified in great detail, through objective and verifiable indicators, which are set by mutual agreement between those who must receive the product of work, and those who must provide that product.
Conceptual theoretical foundations
Innovation and development (R&D) became a powerful engine of productivity in the private sector, at all levels. The latter is important, since the creativity of people does not depend on variables associated with wealth, such as higher education, but it occurs very equitably in a society.
The Logical Framework includes what is proposed by the Behavioral School - setting results and letting act - and combines it with another contribution of the systemic vision: the analytical breakdown of objectives. This analytical breakdown is a systemic model of cause-effect chains that explain the dynamics of a transformation. Its best-known form is the so-called Problem Tree, which deals extensively with the Logical Framework methodology.
ANALYTICAL BREAKDOWN OF THE PROBLEM
The analytical breakdown states that in order to solve a problem, all the immediate causes that determine it must be recognized; (cause 1.2. N): in turn, each of these immediate causes is a consequence of causes of a second hierarchical level, (causes 1.1, 1.2… NM), and these originate in causes of a more disaggregated level, (causes 2.1.1, and 2.1.2.) And so on, incorporating the levels of breakdown that are necessary until reaching the direct factors on which a project or program can act.
The analytical breakdown explains the problem on the basis of cause-effect relationships, which allows moving on to the analytical breakdown of the solution, in the same form of cause-effect relationships, but now triggered by the intervention of a program or project on the factors direct from the chosen solution for the problem-situation.
The last element taken by the Logical Framework is more methodological than conceptual and is the creation of a very compact management instrument that characterizes the method: the Logical Framework Matrix (MML).
This matrix crosses four levels of objectives with four areas associated with management, to present in a very synthetic way the essence of the transformation that is expected to be achieved with the program or project, plus the elements of the environment of trust and credibility that the management.
The four row by four column matrix synthesizes the key information to carry out a program or project. Its four levels of goals are best understood by putting them in the usual context in which they are used, and that is the so-called "problem solving" approach. Thus the four levels of objectives are:
✓ End: The objective to which the resolution of the problem contributes.
✓ Purpose: The situation of the “problem solved”.
✓ Components: The products or services that the program or project delivers to solve the problem.
✓ Activities: The actions necessary to generate the products delivered by the project or program (that is, to generate the components).
For their part, the areas of management that are usually incorporated into the matrix are:
Communication: It is important to describe in simple language the objectives at each level. This gives rise to the Narrative Summary column or Objectives column.
Management: Indicators capable of reflecting progress towards achieving objectives at each level are required. It is manifested in the Indicators column.
Transparency: An independent researcher must be able to verify the value of the indicators. For this there is the Means of Verification column; and
Risks to face: Circumstances external to the project or program management may affect that it achieves its objectives.
This is reported in the Assumptions column.
These are not the only levels of management objectives or areas that can be incorporated into the Logical Framework Matrix, but based on the foundations of the method, there are versions of the MML that are not 4 × 4, but incorporate more or less levels of objectives and scopes.
MML is not only a way to present information, but also contributes to a good conceptualization and design of investment initiatives. If the MML has been prepared correctly, you will be sure that unnecessary activities are not being carried out, as well as that no activity is missing to complete the delivery of the program's goods and services.
Likewise, it will be known that the goods and / or services generated by the program are necessary and sufficient to solve the problem that gave rise to it. You will also be aware of the risks that could affect the development of the program or compromise its contribution to higher development objectives.
The Logical Framework Method
Actions that are undertaken in a program or project have a clear correspondence with the reasons that were taken into account to create the program or project, without over or missing actions leading to obtaining a solution to a problem.
The horizontal logic, on the other hand, seeks to provide those responsible for the program with a navigation chart, where they can find indicators to determine whether, in their action, the program continues to be aligned with its objectives, whether in terms of expected results - in quantity and quality-, as in the rational use of resources.
Application to plans and projects
After applying the method in the field of projects, little by little the Logical Framework began to extend its basic concepts to the field of programs, which, in general, suffered from the same problems as projects.
For this it was necessary to modify some details and definitions, in order to make the approach fully functional with the characteristics that differentiate project programs.
In the field of management, a project is a set of actions that are carried out, under the same command, in search of a single, non-repetitive and well-defined objective or with a defined Budget with a start and end time.
Instead, a program is made up of similar repetitive actions that are offered in a more or less standard way to a large group of natural or legal persons, with the common interest of helping them to solve similar needs. Each individual action may or may not be a project: a roadway program could contain several bridge and tunnel projects; while a school breakfast program will not contain any projects, but only repetitive actions.
The main difference, for the purposes of the Logical Framework, is that in the case of projects, the Purpose is reached at some point in time: for example, the built bridge is inaugurated and allows the circulation of vehicles on it.
In the case of programs, the Purpose is permanent, at least for a time, while there is a recurring problem that can affect many people.
For example, a school breakfast program can solve the situation of those who attend school today, but next year children who finish this stage will graduate and new children will be admitted, who will need the program. The Purpose of the program (well-nourished children) can be in force for many years, without reaching an end state, as it happens with projects.
In the case of projects, the End of the project is not achieved during its execution period; while in the programs, it may be possible to measure variations in the indicators associated with the End before the end of the program, if the duration of the program is very long.
For this reason, it is more important in programs than in projects, to have adequate indicators for the End level.
Another difference is that in the case of projects, the activities tend to be unique and must be very well sequenced.
On the other hand, in the programs, the activities are repetitive and it is possible to carry them out simultaneously.
This implies that while sequencing is very important in projects and, therefore, measuring the start and end times of each activity - in programs, sequencing is lost sight of and the importance of measuring timing decreases.
The logical categories of the Logical Framework
The Logical Framework Methodology, applied to public programs, is based on identifying, in the environment of a project or program, four types of objectives that correspond to different logical categories:
✓ two of them (exogenous) belonging to the political, economic and social context in which the program is inserted, and
✓ the other two types of objectives (endogenous), belonging to the scope of program management.
The two exogenous categories reflect, one (PURPOSE), the impact on the population, which is expected from the implementation of the program, and the other (FIN), the public policy environment in which this expected impact is inserted.
These categories are exogenous, since they reflect situations external to the program and prior to it.
More precisely, they constitute the reason why the program is created: to respond to social, political or economic needs, previously detected and diagnosed.
The two endogenous categories account for the management of the program.
They are input-output type relationships, since they detail what the program produces (COMPONENTS), to deliver to its beneficiaries and the ACTIVITIES through which said components are produced.
The categories are endogenous, since they are created when designing the program, in order to respond to the social, political, and economic needs that are expressed in the exogenous categories.
The political categories express why the program is socially necessary, while the managerial categories show how the goods and services that the program will make available to beneficiaries are generated.
The distinction between exogenous and endogenous categories is the central knot of the Logical Framework method. Being exogenous, the first two categories constitute a social demand, to which the design of the program responds with an offer of goods and services (Components). The success of the program is obtained only if what the program design offers satisfies external demand.
In this sense, the correct application of the method implies considering the existence of an articulation between two planes: social demand and programmatic supply. That articulation is the Purpose, which can be defined in two different ways:
As a specification of social demand: the solution to a specific problem of a population, which is pending before deciding on the program, and which should be solved through the action of the program; and As a projection of the result that the disposition of goods and services that the program actually generates should produce in the population.
These two definitions may or may not be aligned, depending on whether the logical design of the program is well aligned with the needs that gave rise to it.
FIRST CASE: SCHOOL ABSENTEEISM IN SUNFLOWERS
An abnormally high school absenteeism rate has been observed in the Los Girasoles town. Without delving further into the diagnosis, the Secretaries of Health and Social Development offer the services of two pre-existing Programs, already in application in other towns:
- i) the Ministry of Health offers to immunize school children against infectious diseases, in order to reduce the days of absence due to illness; ii) the Ministry of Social Development offers to build a multipurpose sports space, to stimulate interest among school children to attend school for sports
In theoretical terms, both programs may be correct, since -without a doubt- both are in a position to contribute to the goal of having more days of school attendance.
The key point is that in order to act and solve the specific problem of the community, it is not enough to be clear about only this final objective, but it is necessary to complete the diagnosis of why there is school absenteeism in Los Girasoles?
The answer could be, in the example:
- a) children get sick very often; b) children are bored by having nowhere to play; c) children do not understand what the teacher says
If the primary reason for the diagnosis were (a), the immunization schedule would be well aligned; while the program of the sports spaces would not be well aligned.
It is even possible that the correct answer was (c), in which case the offers of both Secretariats would be misaligned with respect to social demand and would be ineffective in solving the problem situation of the community, although they would undoubtedly contribute in some way to Improve the quality of life of the population.
Better quality of life is always desirable, but in terms of the Logical Framework of the Los Girasoles problem, it is not the objective sought.
We can establish this situation graphically, in case the diagnosis indicates that the problem is that the children do not understand the teacher:
Being correctly aligned, the four categories are sequentially ordered as three cause-effect relationships which, in
Components
➢ If the Program delivers the Components to the population, then the Purpose can be achieved
➢ If the Purpose is achieved in the population, then you can contribute to achieving the End.
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