Introduction
The studies of the historical behavior and the development of science and technology, as a theoretical discipline, appear only in the second half of the 20th century.
Consequently, countries that aspire to compete in the new economic spaces have to pay attention to scientific development, technological progress and the accumulation of information, all of which means prioritizing investments in science, technology and research.
The competitive capacity of society is given by the value that people are able to add to the global economy, through their skills and knowledge. The way to achieve development and economic power in the 21st century is not through the exploitation of raw materials and the manual work of people but through the application of their intellectual resources in accordance with scientific and technological advances.
The rapid development of technologies related to Informatics, Telecommunications, Data Processing, Biotechnology and their almost limitless application possibilities are transforming modern societies into Information Societies.
The widespread application of microelectronics in practically all production processes, and of biotechnology in sectors such as agriculture, medicine, food, among others, is a key factor in the new wave of technological renewal that, given its transversality, allows us to talk about overcoming From the industrial era and the transition to postmodernity in terms of materiality, it promotes a restructuring of social class structures, world trade, consumption patterns, as well as social values.
In the era of the third industrial revolution, the fundamental source of wealth is not living labor, but knowledge that significantly reduces living labor and multiplies its productivity many times over. The intellectual potential becomes the main wealth and with it, the tendency as a predominant feature to accelerate the process of direct incorporation of knowledge into products, processes and services.
The economy is thus moving from intensive in labor: textiles, durable consumer goods, toys and capital such as automotive, metallurgy, chemical industry, shipyards, among others, to economies intensive in information and knowledge: electronics, computing, biotechnology, and telecommunications.
The insertion of Cuba in the world economy, together with the need to search for productivity and economic efficiency in the face of the fall of the model based on the existence of the socialist community, has led to a restructuring of the economy that combines an orientation towards an environment competitiveness with the preservation of social achievements in a context of deep economic crisis.
In these circumstances, the way of thinking and acting with regard to economic and social development is altered, their tactics and strategies are modified. This has its impact on the scientific-technical intelligentsia, due to its leading role in understanding and transforming the national reality.
Given the scientific and technological development, knowledge is constantly becoming obsolete, due to its improvement, being subjected to abrupt and rapid changes; for example, from pharmacology to genetics in the healthcare industry, or from the PC to the Internet in the computer industry.
Drucker points out that the productivity of knowledge and educated workers will not be the only deciding factor in the world economy. However, it is likely to become the deciding factor, at least for most industries in developed nations.
So Elster points out that the direction of change in scientific and technological knowledge refers to the trend that it generates; Product innovation leads to new products for consumers and process innovation enables increased productivity, reduced costs and / or improved quality of existing products.
That is, each country must define its own style of technological development depending on the forms, objectives and scope in which a technology is applied. This requires its own R&D base, capable of adapting, innovating and generalizing imported technology.
The economic revival and the development of the country within the current world context place Cuba in the face of the need to value technological innovation not only as a strategic but also a conjunctural variable that allows the creation of productive and technological capacities, in the business and national framework.
This approach leads to the analysis of the innovation process in response to pressing social needs and its impact on import substitution, use of productive infrastructure and diversification of exportable funds.
The linking of research with production between different types of institutions leads to the knowledge generated being disseminated quickly and effectively to the rest of society, which enables the conversion of science and technology into strategic variables of development in the actual conditions.
The structural changes that are taking place in the world affect all spheres of social life, especially the Cuban economy, and are reflected in the national environment.
The present work aims to analyze the relationship between the concepts of science, technology and technoscience, taking into account the Cuban economic - social context and the development of the current biotechnology industry.
Development
It is not easy to offer a definition of science, technology, as well as economics. However, references will be made to some of the definitions provided by the most relevant authors on these topics. In addition, the concept of technoscience, less widespread in the literature, will be introduced, which will serve to highlight the blurred, indistinguishable and sometimes non-existent boundaries between science and technology.
Science
To begin with, the concept of science is usually defined in opposition to that of technique, according to the different functions that they perform. In principle, the function of science is linked to the acquisition of knowledge, the process of knowing, whose most traditional ideal is truth, in particular true scientific theory. Objectivity and rigor are attributes of that knowledge.
The function of the technique is linked to the performance of procedures and products, by making the ideal of which is utility. The technique refers to practical operating procedures useful for certain purposes. It constitutes a knowing how, without necessarily requiring a knowing why. That why, that is, the ability to offer explanations, is typical of science.
For Kröber, science not only as a system of concepts, propositions, theories, hypotheses, but also, simultaneously, as a specific form of social activity directed at the production, distribution and application of knowledge about the objective laws of the nature and society. Even more, science appears to us as a social institution, as a system of scientific organizations, whose structure and development are closely linked with the economy, politics, cultural phenomena, with the needs and possibilities of the given society.
Bybee affirms that science is the systematic and objective search to understand the natural and human world. A body of knowledge formed through research continues. Science is characterized by its empirical approach, by its general statements, its laws, principles, theories, and by the confirmation-refutation texts.
Other definitions of Science have been made through History, such as Aikenhead, who defines it as a disciplined social and institutional process that uses knowledge and techniques to achieve conceptual, material and social goals.
It agrees with Kröber's criterion since it admits that science is a complex sociocultural phenomenon that has its own driving forces, which prevents us from talking about a casual linear and mechanical conditioning between society and science. In addition, in its progress, science can create potentialities that transcend the expectations of the agents and social structures that promote or at least tolerate it. In its ability to penetrate the material and spiritual life of society, science can become a decisive factor in it.
From the previous definitions it should have been clear that this idea of science as theorization, as pure knowledge has been displaced as a vision that integrates the various dimensions of scientific work. However, it can be admitted that knowing, explaining, are unquestionable attributes of science.
Technique and technology
Following this order of idea, what is understood by technique and technology will be briefly explained.
The idea of technique is usually associated with doing, to the set of useful operating procedures from the practical point of view for certain purposes. In a very primary and elementary way, science is associated with knowing and technique with doing.
In the same way, the techniques, although to a greater or lesser extent are supported by knowledge, their main meaning is to perform procedures and products and their ideal is utility.
For Pacey technique, no more than knowledge, capacities, technical skills, instruments, tools and machinery, human and material resources, raw materials, products obtained, waste and residues.
However, in order to discuss the notions of technique and technology, it can be initially admitted that technique refers to making efficient, that is, to rules that allow certain practical objectives to be reached in a correct, precise and satisfactory way. In the same way as science, linked to knowledge, technology has undergone a process of differentiation that has given rise to technology that "constitutes that form (and historical development) of technique that is structurally based on the existence of science.".
From this perspective, technology represents a level of development of technology in which the alliance with science introduces a defining feature.
In the same way that contemporary science does not cancel other forms of knowledge and knowing, but rather coexists with them, the appearance of modern technology does not eliminate the existence of many other dimensions of technique whose relationship with scientific knowledge does not have the same character. structural.
Likewise, various elements were offered that allow understanding the phenomenon called science, insisting on its social nature. Also in relation to technology, the same procedure will be followed.
Quintanilla suggests that the term technique tends to be reserved for pre-scientific artisan techniques, that of technology for industrial techniques linked to scientific knowledge. "Technologies are technical complexes promoted by the organizational needs of industrial production, which in turn promote new developments in science."
Sábato and Mackenzie define technology as “a package of organized knowledge of different kinds (scientific, technical, empirical) coming from different sources (science, other technologies) through different methods (research, adaptation, development, copying, espionage”.
Pacey believes that there are two definitions of technology, one narrow and one general. In the first one, it is appreciated only in its technical aspect: knowledge, skills, tools, machines. The second also includes organizational aspects: economic and industrial activity, professional activity, users and consumers, and cultural aspects: objectives, values and ethical codes, codes of behavior. Among all these aspects there are tensions and interrelations that produce reciprocal changes and adjustments.
Consequently, technology transfer, technology diffusion processes can generate alterations in socio-systems similar to those that occur in ecosystems when we alter the balance that characterizes them.
“Technology, therefore, is not autonomous in a double sense: on the one hand it does not develop autonomously with respect to social forces and factors, and, on the other, it cannot be separated from the socio-systems in which it is integrated and on which it acts. Technology forms an integral part of its socio-system, contributes to and is shaped by it. It cannot, therefore, be evaluated independently of the socio-system that produces it and suffers its effects.
Contemporary technological society has placed a good part of science based on technological priorities. In turn, technology is increasingly dependent on scientific knowledge and activity.
Finally, for Sáenz and García, technology is the set of scientific and empirical knowledge, skills, experience and organization required to produce, distribute and use goods and services. Therefore, it includes theoretical and practical knowledge, physical means, know-how, means and productive, managerial and organizational procedures, among others, identification and assimilation of successes and failures, capacities and skills of human resources.
They coincide with these authors since from this point of view this definition makes explicit other elements not contained in the previous definitions, among which it suggests that the technological phenomenon be studied and managed as a whole, as a social practice, always making the values evident underlying cultural factors. Technical solutions must always be considered in relation to organizational and cultural aspects.
The nature of Technoscience
Contemporary science, as we have seen, is increasingly oriented to practical objects, to promote technological development and with this innovation. The technological support of a good part of scientific research is also notable; Its realization is only possible by virtue of the existence of equipment as sophisticated as it is expensive, which also influences the very course of the investigation, in what will count as a scientific fact, in the possibilities and modalities of access to the objects investigated.
Contemporary technological society has placed a good part of science based on technological priorities. According to UNESCO (1996) basic research represents less than 20% of the research carried out in developed countries. According to the same source, companies are the ones that are running today with a good part of the expenditure on R&D and even with the execution of research. Note that even basic science is characterized by high technological sophistication. These realities place science in an unprecedented relationship with technology and it is to be expected that this situation continues to assert itself.
In turn, technology, as we have seen, is increasingly dependent on scientific knowledge and activity.
All this suggests that the classic limits attributed to science and technology are becoming blurred and even more so, dissolving. We are facing a complex science - technology where, as Barret says: "The script that joins the terms of science - technology indicates that essential union (…) The new science is, by its essence, technological"
The term technoscience is precisely a language resource to denote the intimate connection between science and technology. The term technoscience does not necessarily lead to canceling the identities of science and technology, but it does warn that the research on them and the practical policies that are implemented regarding them have to start from the type of connection that the word technoscience wishes to underline.
It is about becoming aware of the techno-scientific nature of contemporary scientific and technological activity. biotechnology, pharmacology, synthetic chemistry would be some examples, among many, that illustrate the nature of technoscience.
Technosciences not only investigate natural processes but increasingly more objects and processes that the very instrumentalization of research has made possible.
Without eliminating the identities of science and technology, the idea of technoscience has fundamental consequences for our analyzes.
In this perspective, the intentional separation between theoretical and practical contemplation, accompanied by the first, is displaced by an essentially active attitude where the theoretical representation is put at the service of manipulative activity. "The terms technoscience and technoscientific indicate, at the same time, the intertwining between the two poles and the preponderance of the technical pole and, furthermore, are appropriate to designate contemporary scientific activity in its complexity and originality." In other words, it is not just a matter of insisting on interrelations, but even of placing the technical or technological pole as preponderant.
The idea of technoscience also underlines the extremely complex social motives that drive scientific-technological development. The role of social interests in defining its course is all the clearer as the technological dimension becomes preponderant.
Contemporary society is subjected to numerous impacts by technoscience; economic, cultural and all kinds of impacts. Many people are dedicated to technoscience and practically every citizen on the planet experiences its effects.
However, we frequently handle concepts in relation to science and technology that hardly account for the social nature of both. Modifying these concepts, enriching our social vision of technoscience seems to be an obligation of formal and informal educational systems.
Taking into account the concepts of science, technique, technology and technoscience discussed so far, aspects related to the economy will be analyzed.
Economy
Economics is the science that studies the relations of production and distribution that societies have established throughout history. So we can state that economics is a social science that studies economic choices or decisions under:
- The existence of scarce resources whose uses can be diverse The need to satisfy unlimited human needs Production and distribution of different goods and services.
For Samuelson, economics is the science that studies the way in which scarce resources are allocated among the various uses that compete for them in order to satisfy part of the unlimited desires of individuals.
As mentioned above, resources are scarce and needs are unlimited, so the economic problem will consist of:
How to use scarce resources to produce goods and services sufficient to satisfy unlimited needs?
Thus, economics is the science that studies the way in which scarce resources are allocated among the various uses that compete for them.
The economic problem can be expressed through three basic questions, which must be answered by any system of economic organization:
- What and how much to produce? That is, what goods and services should be produced and in what quantities? Given the existence of needs and that they are well satisfied, then it is necessary to determine which needs are going to be satisfied and which are the goods that satisfy those needs. This is an economic question: How to produce? In other words, how to produce the goods? This question is of a technical nature, and refers to what will be the technology used in production, what are the necessary materials, the type of labor, the production process, etc. For whom to produce? That is, who gets what is produced? This question is of a social nature and its solution depends on the model followed by the social organization,since for example in a market economy it will depend on the purchasing power of different consumers.
To answer these three questions, every society must make decisions about the factors and products of the economy. Factors are the goods or services that are used to produce goods or services. The economy uses available technology to transform these factors and generate products. Products are the different goods or services that result from the production process that are consumed or used in a subsequent production process.
The factors of production can be classified into the following categories:
Usable natural resources: It refers to the factors that intervene in production and that are obtained from nature:
- Economically active population or workforce: Refers to the work that can be performed by all workers with physical and mental capacity to work, including both employed and unemployed Capital: Refers to the means created by humans and used to produce, such as machinery, physical plant of companies, production equipment, among others.Technology: Any method to produce a good or service.Business capacity: Consists of the set of abilities and skills that allow coordinating all other resources (land, labor, capital and technology). That is, the ability to design and create new products, to develop new production processes.
Therefore, what matters to the economy is to know what maximum quantities of products can be obtained with each combination of quantities of factors. These maximum quantities are determined by technology, which is the set of technical knowledge and ways of doing and acting to produce. If a technological improvement occurs, the maximum quantities that can be produced with each combination of quantities of factors will increase, or seen in another way, the quantities of factors necessary to produce a certain quantity of products will decrease.
This technological improvement is the result of an advance in knowledge, inventions or new discoveries. Its application in production constitutes an innovation and may consist of a different way of doing things, the appearance of a new product. On the other hand, if there are several ways to combine resources to obtain a certain amount of products, society will have to decide which of them is the most appropriate and this is known as a technical choice.
Taking this into consideration, Cuba, among other combinations, has opted for the development of biotechnology.
Before continuing with these approaches, we will first define what is understood by biotechnology?
Biotechnology is based on technology that studies and takes advantage of the biological mechanisms and interactions of living beings, especially unicellular ones, through a wide multidisciplinary field, involving various disciplines and sciences such as biology, biochemistry, genetics, virology, agronomy, ecology., engineering, physics, chemistry, medicine and veterinary medicine.
The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) defines biotechnology as the "application of principles of science and engineering to the treatment of organic and inorganic materials by biological systems to produce goods and services."
Through biotechnology, scientists seek to generate healthier food, better drugs, more resistant or less polluting materials, more productive crops, renewable energy sources and even systems to eliminate pollution.
As can be seen, biotechnology is widely used in agriculture, pharmacy, food science, environment, and medicine.
Development of the biotechnology industry in Cuba
It is noteworthy that biotechnology in Cuba before the triumph of the Revolution in 1959 was practically unknown, although advanced scientific thinking existed on the island since the 19th century with world-class figures such as Carlos J. Finlay, Tomás Romay and Álvaro Reynoso.
The development of biotechnology in Cuba, in recent years, is characterized by achieving new products, not only by proposing its own technology, but also by being totally novel in terms of its properties.
Thanks to multiple educational programs that made it possible to create the necessary professional base, a strategy for the development of biotechnology had already been proposed in Cuba since the 1980s, and in 1981 the Biological Front was created, of which various scientific institutions were part.
In that same decade, several scientific centers were created, such as the Center for Biological Research, the Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (CIGB), the Center for the Production of Laboratory Animals (CENPALAB), the National Center for Biopreparations (BIOCEN), the Center for Immunoassay and the Center for Molecular Immunology (CIM).
In addition, others were remodeled and expanded for their insertion into the biotechnology industry, such as the Pedro Kourí Institute of Tropical Medicine (IPK) and the Finlay and Vaccine Institute.
The country also has an extensive network of biofactories for the production of vitro plants in order to improve the agricultural sector, and new varieties more resistant to diseases and pests have been achieved in crops such as sugar cane, potatoes, tobacco, bananas, vegetables and citrus.
There are also advances in animal biotechnology, with the obtaining of new generation veterinary vaccines and the production of transgenic animals.
Unlike other similar industries, Cuban biotechnology not only produces for the sake of improving the quality of life of its people, but also collaborates in the production and export of products to other countries with limited economic resources, which cannot afford the prices. monopoly of the big transnationals.
The words of Fidel during the inauguration of the Center for Medical Biophysics in Santiago de Cuba in 1993 seem prophetic when he said: «science and science productions must one day occupy the first place in the national economy (…) we have to develop the productions of intelligence, that is our place in the world, there will be no other; all these that are derived from the effort that we are making in the investigations and in the products of the investigations.
Today, this industry is part of the areas to be promoted in the process of updating the Cuban economic model led by the government of Raúl Castro, whose guidelines are included in the document “Guidelines for the Economic and Social Policy of the Party and the Revolution”. specifically guidelines 129 and 131, which refer to the Science, Technology, Innovation and Environment Policy.
Economic impact of biotechnology
The biotechnological medicine sector in Cuba has positioned itself as the second export line of the country thanks to the export of products generated by this sphere of Cuban science, managing to insert more than 300 million dollars of income into the Cuban economy.
The country, mainly from the Scientific Pole, has achieved a wide diversification of its offers and its export markets, generated by the high quality of first-rate products such as Cuban vaccines against Meningitis, against Hepatitis B (Hep B), Pentavalent (against Diphtheria, Tetanus, Pertussis, Hep B and Hib), Erythropoietin (EPO), Interferons (IFN), epidermal growth factors (GSCF), anti-retroviral drugs against AIDS, among others with a high recognition in the market of this type of products.
Another interesting aspect is that of Licenses and Patents, in which the Cuban biotechnology system has been inserted in order to achieve the protection of technologies and inventions developed by our scientists and researchers.
Cuba has managed to implement joint ventures and technology transfers to underdeveloped countries and even to countries with a high level of development, using the scientific potential achieved through Cuban biotechnology.
The technology transfer modalities applied by our institutions are different, but all are aimed at capitalizing on the intelligence developed in the country, starting from providing the know-how, the knowledge, the creative and innovative capacity of the valuable human capital that the company has. nation.
The commercialization of these patents extends to more than 50 countries to which exports increase each year, generating revenues of several hundred million dollars.
The establishment of the biotechnology industry in the country has proven viable as a knowledge-based economy sector, to the point that it already constitutes the first exportable item of material goods in the country, an expression of the strong connection between science and the economy; However, his most transcendental tribute to society is the unquestionable contribution of his achievements for the benefit of Public Health.
Conclusions
Cuba is a country with strength and its own scientific and social heritage, well structured and with very precise objectives, where there is a biotechnological development of the highest level capable of competing with any country in the world, becoming one more way to offer high quality products. level to countries not only underdeveloped or developing, but even developed countries as has been the case of the United States, Canada and some European countries.
Today, the productions of the biotechnology industry, in addition to substituting imports, generate income of several hundred million dollars with which they have already occupied the first position as an export line of the national economy.
That is why the development achieved in this sphere is a very important tool for Cuba's Foreign Relations, from all political, economic, commercial and collaborative points of view, due to its undeniable human content and due to the very positive impact that has in international public opinion.
Knowing what has been achieved in a country like Cuba, with low economic resources and blocked, in a sphere to which few nations in the world have access, says a lot about the educational levels of our population, about the great resources that are dedicated to research. scientific in branches so important for human well-being, and the humanist vocation of Cuban society.
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