Participation of women in public administration

1. INTRODUCTION

The situational analysis of women in public administration goes through various issues related to agenda problems, historical contexts, state public policies and the different aspects of their participation. In particular, the role that public policies play is the closest and most categorical in this regard, since they are determined by government decision-makers, who maneuver according to various regulations, schedules and structures that may (or may not) intervene in the contextual limitation of women in the state sector.

The proposed analyzes have been driven by various prescriptive and practical questions that ask: what is the real degree of participation of women in public administration ?; Are there real public policies that contemplate the situation of women in the state sector? What are the parameters that affect your progress within it? What variables would correspond to be operated to optimize the female position in the administration? To answer the questions I have focused this monograph on theoretical approaches (organizational, cultural, managerial, political, economic and interrelational), each of them with its corresponding defined involvement towards a discipline and with a drowned look at the problems involved in the alternative search solutions or strategies to achieve the proposed achievements.The pigeonhole of certain theoretical concepts runs into difficulties because the sense of belonging to an approach is not deterministic and logically the considerations are not unique or exhaustive, but they are indicative of the thinking of the nominated researchers, but all are united by a great transversal axis: the gender.

female-participation-organizational-behavior

The positions of different authors - belonging to this Seminar as well as others from previous seminars - are outlined, who retain a direct relationship with explorations of female exclusion and discrimination within this sector and even directly with those public policies, very segregationist and harmful, of passing in time without acting, of "not doing". Finally, after the conceptual synopsis, the “main ideas” of each approach are outlined -based on these referential frameworks- that make it possible to visualize the actions to improve the position of women in public policies aimed at the state sector.

2- PUBLIC POLICIES FOR THE PUBLIC SECTOR

Let me first take a play on words that I consider transcendental to make a difference: Not all public policy is intended for the public sector, although public administration is the result of the determination of public policies adopted by the government decision maker. Public policies are "… processes by which public action programs are drawn up and implemented, that is, political-administrative mechanisms coordinated around explicit objectives…"(Guzmán Virginia, 2003) but they are not limited or necessarily distinctively oriented for the public sector. Policies of sexual reproduction or national and citizen security are oriented towards society, with the public sector being one of the agents in charge of carrying them out, but they are not strictly channeled to it; While the policies aimed at producing structural reforms in an organizational unit, or the merger, elimination or creation of new areas within the State, for example, are specifically destined within the public administration.

With this exception made, the trilogy: public decision-maker-public policies-public administration is in permanent interaction. The paradigm of an automated administration that fully responds to the decision of political power establishes the central axis of the traditional model of public administration from which its classic bureaucratic, formal, structural and pyramidal characteristics are deduced. The organizational positioning of the officials and the assignment of values ​​associated with equanimity, rectitude and probity that are assigned to them, are the result of the theoretical separation between politics and administration, although in practice this dissociation does not undoubtedly occur.For this reason, those who are in charge of organizational units in career positions - and therefore all their employees - follow the directive guidelines of the politician on duty, implementing the policies that they establish.

For this reason, the new public administration must have a series of values ​​in which it is not only the executing arm of the political decision, but can reorient its activities aimed at achieving greater autonomy, where ideas and experiences can be transformed into concrete actions. years of career officials and plant personnel, where the organizational culture is reoriented to obtain better quality in the services provided, where public ethics is regulated as an instrument of control of the state bureaucracy and where they are contemplated -within other things- the problem of female personnel in the public sector. This requires the adoption of public policies oriented towards the intrinsic nature of the administration that change the traditional vision of those who are in charge of political power.

3- DESCRIPTION OF THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND ITS APPROACHES

Public administration is the place where there are often a variety of combinations where "public policy" is confused with "political or partisan power"; where "public administration" is mixed with "political function"; where the public administrator makes public policies in his understanding, because they are not defined or because he has his own agenda; where the politician administers with a sense of "party politics" and not of public policy and administrative efficiency. All these concepts are intertwined and have as their true protagonists thousands of employees who carry out policies - even if they are not their direct beneficiaries - within the state administration.

The objective of public management is to efficiently administer everything concerning the public; that is, to public spending, projects, plans and programs of a government and is managed by public agents who seek to achieve their personal and professional development through it. "Ideologically the Public Administration is a privileged place to review a set of conceptions that relate women to power and their incidence with the decision-making system, the true backbone of Public Administration and about which very little is known." In particular, the exploration of the progress of the position occupied by women in the public sector is addressed, indicating it in an orderly fashion from six theoretical approaches: organizational, cultural, managerial, political, economic and interrelational.those that bring their respective responses within the clearly defined conceptual framework.

The organization, the place where daily work is specifically carried out, must integrate a capacity for self-examination with a viable gender logic (beyond the male bias) and recognize the necessary steps to achieve the total quality of its performance. Within this approach, the cultural perspective, on the one hand, considers the female sexed body as an integral part that must suffer the vicissitudes of discrimination, manifest or not due to the sole condition of such; and, on the other hand, management positions have been seen as a way to resolve impediments, obstacles and organizational tensions assigned by the public statute, at the same time that it provides them with sufficient autonomy of action, although the limitations on access and remuneration of the women in those positions may not be the same as for men.

The insertion in the political task validates the struggles to achieve changes in the arbitrary culture that attributes a conditioned and top-down point of view of the politics dominated by men. The economic analysis is related to the political one that conditions it and determines and shows the gender implications both in the development of their economic activities and in the impact that economic policies have on them within the administration, substantially in terms of wages.

The interrelationship between the State and society has been greatly modified by the significant advances made in the last 20 years by women's movements based on the favorable responses that are being obtained from government sectors. These achievements produce - without a doubt - the transformation of institutional frameworks, beyond changes of instrumental rationality, since they involve changes in actors, power, knowledge, skills, competence, mental and evaluative models, as well as patterns of significance. of reality. To visualize the positions of various authors regarding these theoretical approaches, illustrative tables with their thoughts have been prepared, in which five categories of analysis were uniformly selected: context, actors, influence, limitations and achievements,that encompass and synthesize their ideas. It is observed that there are themes that may coincide with each other, and therefore cover more than one category and it may even happen that certain authors do not refer to any of them. The theoretical framework in general has a transversal axis that crosses both the approaches and the categories of each one and the center of this analysis: gender.

4- ORGANIZATIONAL APPROACH

In this first approach, the perspective of women is analyzed within the public jurisdictions in which they carry out their tasks, where the problems they face are related to the characteristics of the organization. Rosabeth Kanter synthesized these characteristics using three variables that include the distribution of opportunity, the distribution of power and the social composition. The first of them is linked to the expectations of an employee's progress within his organization regarding "promotion rates, access to recognized challenges within the organization and increased skills and remuneration" _{(page 246)}; the second "refers to an employee's ability to act effectively within the constraints of a broader organizational system."_{(page 247)}; and the third refers to the proportion in which people are within an organization, since in organizations "there are symbols, whatever the characteristic (sex, ethnicity, race, etc.) that turns the person into a symbol" _(Kanter Rosabeth, 1977: 248)

These variables refer to those behaviors and qualities that define those who have triumphs in the institutions and the structural situation they challenge, but the organizational tradition surely women do not represent the behaviors of successful employees, since they are more exposed to positions of opportunity blocked, to be people with less power and be more exposed to symbolic situations within the administration.

Women in a public organization -both as a workforce or as an extension of the bases of legality of a democratic society- are sometimes not legitimized in their activities, although they contribute with specific changes to the enunciation of what is public and what is private, placing tension in the "natural order" that expressed the daily social-sexual division of tasks. Even public organizational climates are not always the most appropriate and comfortable to perform, especially when they impose restrictions. Organizations are made up of authentic social products and function within the context of current social values; social gender preconceptions and prejudices are not absent in the functioning of the state apparatus.

In this conceptual framework "equality is a romantic idea, if a promotion is at stake, the boss will always choose a man."

Fanelli states that in the National Public Administration, under equal conditions, women tend to occupy the base of the organizational pyramid in a higher proportion than men. It points out that occupational discrimination by sex occurs at the time of admission and as a consequence, “the promotion process seems to be less influenced by discriminatory practices, since the mechanisms for assigning tasks by sex contribute to reproducing the occupational discrimination present when women join to the State ”. ⁵ _(Garciade Fanelli, Ana. 1990: 33). Coinciding with this position, Ruiz and Heller report that “there is relative discrimination in the labor insertion of women; to access a certain category or position, they are required to have greater seniority and / or education than men; the higher you move up the organizational structure, the lower the percentage of women. (Ruiz-Heller, 1985: 144)

Table Nº 1 shows the main relationships of the organizational approach, in which the problems faced by women are emanating from the structural situations in which they find themselves clearly showing that institutional changes are based on the commitment and contribution of the staff. Organizational research is studied from sociology and is frequently identified by its insistence on the nature of organizational structures _(Silverman 1971)..

Table Nº 1. Organizational approach

CONTEXT	ACTORS	INFLUENCE	LIMITING ACHIEVEMENTS	AUTHORS
	public and private		Not being able to render a destatization account of the action of state policy	Cesar Cansino 8
Organizational unit	Director or Boss ___________ Employees	On structural conditions -Opportunity distribution -Distribution of power	Possible biases against women Discrimination Tension due to expectations of progress Ineffective performance	Fewer women in higher positions Women do not represent successful employees	Totah Jose Garcia from Fanelli Ana Ruiz Susana Heller Lidia Kanter Rosabeth

4.1- CULTURAL APPROACH

Here the feminine problems that are housed in the innate and congenital characteristics of individuals as determining factors of their behavior are outlined. Scalpi states that "it is obvious that from a reproductive perspective, the public administration, together with other institutions, defines an area where the traditional reproductive ideas of the sexism of culture are inoculated" (Scalpi Diana, 1999: 216)

The stereotypes of the sexual roles affect the discernment of the public style and the performance according to which sex comes from is appreciated differently, always to the detriment of the role

female (Bartol and Butterfield, 1976). From remote times the woman was seen as “an unfinished man” and the logic that ordered the social arguments that have established this discrepancy produced the identification of the sexual condition. The inscription of "… the differences in a binary and hierarchical order where always one of the differential attributes -the masculine- is taken as a measurement criterion and the feminine attributes are defect, lack, etc." (Fernández, Ana María. 2001: 6)

It is clearly distinguished that there are traits associated with male sexuality that are requested to achieve success in key positions in the administration, it is estimated that there are traits incorporated into female sexual roles that may become inappropriate with those that correspond to those of a good administrator (Schein, 1975; Steinberg and Shapiro, 1982). This sexual question leads, when selecting women to hold political office, that they are stereotyped with areas of culture, education or social action, and not with defense or government, as they are considered "diminished" or without character to face crime, the management of the police, relations with the provinces, civil defense, etc.

In general, as a corollary to this discrimination, public policies aimed at women consider them to be in risky situations as defenseless, beaten, disabled, etc. and the same is not the case with policies aimed at men. Naila Kabeer says, to cite just one example “… men have been the invisible gender in family planning discourse and in family planning policy: programs tend to function as if those who use contraceptives had to be women” ¹¹ (Kabeer Naila, 1998: 20)

In short, sexuation, sometimes hidden and explicit in others, is installed in the public administration and is the bearer of violence ”

Table Nº 2 summarizes the opinions of researchers on this approach, those who continue within their lines seeking to explain the influence of sexual roles in the determination of public policies, and explain the convergence of this psychological approach with the political one at a point: the variable behavior of the subjects. From psychology, this behavioral transformation will be born of new behaviors and from politics, it will be imposed by public policy.

11 Caber, Naila (1998): Turned Realities: Gender Hierarchies in Development Thought. Editorial Paidos. Mexico. P. 20

12 Buchelli, Marisa (1995): “Decomposition of salary differences between men and women.” Journal of Economics, Finance and Administration. - Montevideo. - Year 28, Page 26 13 Filgueira, Nea (1990): Exclusion of women from the institutional political system /. - Montevideo: se, 1990. 18 p.

Event: Seminar on Women and Power on the Margins of Uruguayan Democracy (1990 Aug. 31-Sept. 2: Montevideo). - Friedrich Ebert Foundation)

Table Nº 2. Cultural approach

CONTEXT	ACTORS	INFLUENCE LIMITING ACHIEVEMENTS	AUTHORS
Administration public	women	Ability for public offices to manage associated with sex roles traditional ideas	Variable success Reduce career options None	Steinberg and Shapiro Scalpi Schein Buchelli
Labor society in general	individual	Sex differences from biological sex Stereotypes of sex roles Socialization of sex roles	The thoughts of the same society You do not participate or your participation is not recognized Male management model Appreciation of the behaviors and attitudes of women	It legitimizes social inequality. Gender discrimination None for women Allow selection and promotion	Fernández, Ana María. Jean jaques Rousseau Bartol and Butterfield
Socialization of sex roles	Concept that women have of themselves		Experience in positions of opportunity Understanding the path to career success

4.2- MANAGEMENT APPROACH

The perspectives of women to occupy managerial positions, vital for setting or influencing the determination of public policies of any nature in modern public administrations, are analyzed here. This approach is directly related to the cultural one, since the psychological bibliography portrays a male management model admitted by both sexes _{(Shein, 1973)} that circumscribes the possibilities of managerial careers for women and delays their advancement in public organizations.

The public manager is a leader, an implementer of public policies, “… capable of engaging and motivating the members of the organization, an agent of innovative change that cooperates in the definition of the

public interests "(Olías de Lima Blanca, 2001: 22-23). This management modality of public managers transforms them into key actors in the process of transformation from "the political to the public". (Oria Giordan, SoniaElizabeth. 2002: 14).

In Argentina, “… only 28.6% of managerial positions in the national State are held by women and… when the percentage of women who occupy managerial positions in jurisdictions where the female staff is the majority is analyzed, it is clear that said percentage does not correspond to the total female population. The typical case is the Ministry of Education. Most of the staff is female and only 25% of executive positions are held by women " (Scalpi Diana, 1999: 205).

If a comparison is made with men, it is the male chauvinist world that considers women as less qualified, less suitable, less determined to occupy managerial positions, receiving fewer job offers of this nature.(Bowman, Worthy and Greyser, 1965). It is appreciated that there are attributes linked to the male sexual role that are needed to obtain important positions since women have preconceptions about themselves, lack of training, and leadership that make them more inappropriate than men for management _{(Radin, Beryl.} 1980: 53) . Kliksberg reports that “the advances of women in managerial positions in the corporate world have limited achievements. In 1999 women only represented 11 to 12% of executives in the 500 largest US corporations… ” (Bernardo Kliksberg. 2002: 11)

Table Nº 3 indicates the competitiveness that women have to manage -physonomies, skills, abilities, characters and behaviors- this being the factor that justifies their success in managerial positions. This is, from an administrative point of view, the clearest example of public policies designed for the public sector. A brand new investigation(_{Henry, 2002)} commissioned by the US Congress indicates that “… in addition to that, the gender pay differences even in those management levels have not only not disappeared but in recent years they have widened… in 2000 that got worse, I only perceived 73%. Even in high management positions and in developed countries, women pay high costs for their labor integration ”(Bernardo Kliksberg. 2002: 11)

Table Nº 3. Management approach

CONTEXT ACTORS	LIMITING INFLUENCES	ACHIEVEMENTS	AUTHORS
Managerial positions in the public administration	Men and women Women	Great influence on public policies ________________ Some degree of independence in decision-making	Lack of knowledge, ethnologies, experience Power decisions political ______________ Male management model Women considered less qualified, less suitable Lack of female leadership	Varied Bounded	Egle Iturbe Training of executives pag 6 Olías de Lima Shein Kliksberg Bowman, Worthy and Greyser Randin Scalpi

5- POLITICAL APPROACH

Here we observe the habitual concern that political science has to elucidate the degree of participation that women have within the political system, which makes them public policy makers. The works in this sense deal with them as political actors and understand from the multiplicity of actions carried out by feminist movements to achieve greater recognition in this regard, as well as the way in which the participation of women in politics, and the roles, spaces and positions they hold in public organizations. “The marginalization of women in political institutions is justified as an idiosyncratic issue, the result of a socialization that does not prepare them for the public world.The predominant interpretation is that women lack understanding of the rules of the political game "²³. (Filgueira, Nea. 1990). This approach varied as

²³ Filgueira, Nea (1990): Exclusion of women from the institutional political system /. - Montevideo: se, 1990. - 18 p. Event: Seminar on Women and Power on the Margins of Uruguayan Democracy (1990 Aug. 31-Sept. 2: Montevideo). - Friedrich Ebert Foundation)

The decades have gone by, due to the greater role of women's organizations in the achievement of their citizen rights, which also made possible a greater insertion of women in the political-public sector . In their political struggles, women fight both for greater access to the male-dominated sphere, and for changing the very space of realization of politics and the political field (Wendy Harcourt and Arturo Escobar, 2002: 8)

Lepper, Klein, Harcourt, Guzmán, investigated the female role within the political spectrum, basically in highly relevant positions and how women have occupied important political positions in the field of State in recent years . In general, despite the different analysis processes, it is agreed that the political sphere is such that it is still dominated by men and it is necessary to propose solutions to the increase in female participation within it. The quota laws have considerably increased this participation, but they are not enough, since true equality of opportunities has not yet been achieved, producing discrimination. (Ethel Klein, 1984, page 31).

Political thought is based among other principles on equality (Ian Forbes 1995, Jhon Schaar 1971) and everyone agrees that the need for equal opportunities is politically significant. The execution of public policies with a gender equality perspective are affected, on the one hand, by the State's own decisions that affect the situation of women and gender relations and, on the other, are centered on plans that seek equal opportunities. those that consequently orient state action. (Gonzalez- Soto-Villalba 2002, Guzmán-Todaro)

Table Nº 4 contains the categories of analysis and their relationships within the political approach and it appears that there is a coincidence of authors in the advancement of female participation in political roles, which is highly facilitated in those places where feminist movements are stronger and more influential within local public policies. In Argentina, the protagonism of women was advancing in relation to the degree of commitment and identity with political parties. However, despite the fact that “the party affiliation of women in a global way is usually higher than 51%, the female presence in the decision-making bodies of their parties barely exceeds 4%”.(Aizenberg, Bachetta and others. 1996).

Table Nº 4. Political approach

CONTEXT	ACTORS	INFLUENCE	LIMITING	ACHIEVEMENTS	AUTHORS
Determination of Public Policies of various orders: social, health	Governments, parties, voters, NGOs Women as rational agents	Interaction of actors Determinant in the system political	Church; Labor market barriers; social plan only for head of household Conflict of justifications Fragmented and unequal society	Variables Equal opportunities	Virginia Guzman Ian Forbes John schaar Todaro- Guzman. 32
Articulation of problems Actions collective World meetings and forums	Feminist movement	Promulgation of public policy to expand the participation Opportunities offered by political and institutional systems institutional Visibility as actor They strengthen pre-existing networks and organizations.	Group delimitation and organizations Disarticulation and fragmentation Failure to include women's issues on public agendas	Rise of Jo Freeman women in positions important Lepper Expansion of Doug Mc space by Adam, John McCarthy performance and Mayer N. Zald Virginia Guzman equal opportunities plan Todaro- Guzmán protagonism. 34 visible. Recognition of diversity Collaboration in transformation of the political order Virginia Guzman

5.1- SALARY APPROACH

Politics and economics are closely related and constantly feed into each other, for this reason this perspective, as a corollary, has been linked to politics, to determine the salary aspect. It is true that economic variations condition the formulation of public policies to a greater degree than any of the other variables. In general, Cagatay states that: ”the expansion and liberalization of international trade has contradictory effects on the well-being of women and on gender relations. Likewise, wage inequalities between the skilled and the unskilled have increased ". (Cagatay Nilufer, 1998). In particular, "public administrations compete with the political market for the allocation of resources in which it is very difficult to determine what the final product is" (Olías de Lima Blanca, 2001: 234) , and the more the wage policies that depend on these decisions politicians of the day.

This is the world of work in which the problem of gender inequalities as barriers to efficiency in wage allocation has been studied with growing interest. Income inequality, if public employment policies are separated from macroeconomic ones, will result in a growing number of excluded people and will force the search for other horizons.(Lindenboim, Javier. 2001). Statistics indicate that women “punished” by underemployment and mistreatment earn on average almost 30% less than men, and perform low-quality tasks and precarious jobs; underemployment punishes them the same as age. Furthermore, according to studies on gender discrimination in work remuneration, in most countries women earn two-thirds less than men. It is considered that between 30 and 60% of the observable differences can be interpreted as discriminatory. (Schubert, 1997: 120)

In Uruguay, says Marisa Buchelli, “the average median income of women is 52 percent of that of men. Faced with the same characteristics (formal education and age), men receive considerably higher incomes than women and always occupy the most important positions in both private and public administration ””. ³⁸ (Buchelli, Marisa. 1995: 26). In Argentina… “the opportunities for access to management positions for personnel and administrative units are not equivalent for both sexes and it goes without saying that an important pending issue is eliminating this glass ceiling that determines, to date, the persistence of lower salary payments for female public personnel ”(Scalpi Diana 208)

Table Nº 5. Salary approach

CONTEXT ACTORS LIMITING INFLUENCES ACHIEVEMENTS AUTHORS
Economic and cultural globalization		Incorporation of gender in public policies	Own of globalization. Scenarios changing	Virginia Guzman, Unit 2
	Collectives. Public and private	Exercised by the State and Market	They are not able to solve all public problems	Crescent Norbert Lechner and actors participation in Dirk Messner's design politics
Official Paid Labor Economy	Labor versus commodification		Confusion	I know promote liberation?	Nancy Fraser page 1
Transitions or democratizations after dictatorships	Economic crisis	Of political actors in action Social	Authoritarian, institutional constraints		Garretón page 15
	Coordination to through the market		Socail reorganization		Nortber Lechner page 6
Reinsertion of national economies in globalization processes	Greater autonomy of the economy from politics	Social actors with various consequences	Disarticulation with the world of work	Figueras Garretón pag 18
Social state	Economic balance, Full employment, Sustained growth	Capitalist society	Inequalities social and economic	Keynes

9- INTERRELATIONAL APPROACH

Public gender policies are the consequence of intricate processes that are sustained in the State-society relationship and in the interaction spaces in which they develop. The environment is deeply immersed in gender relations. The last place is the public social space, the male-dominated sphere where political decisions are made and to which most women still have limited access.

The State reproduces the gender relations in force in society and even if it is not accepted as a simple reproducer of those relations, no one can deny this feature. The State itself and the public organizations that comprise it are, consequently, filterable by dominant models and behaviors in society, also including the views on the feminine and the masculine.

In reality, the state has functioned as a control mechanism over various aspects of women's lives. It is evident that in our society there are inequalities that generate disadvantages for men and women. The progressive, but effective and substantive overcoming of this limitation to development will only be possible to the extent that the State and Civil Society formulate Public Policies, based on knowledge of the conditions, potentialities and demands of the target population, differentiated between men and women.

It then seems clear that a public policy is more than a collection of actions and decisions, since these constitute an extremely heterogeneous picture that involves numerous actors belonging to multiple public and private organizations that intervene at different levels. The World Bank (1995) points out that in Latin America the adjustments have reduced the hourly wages of women much more dramatically than those of men, due to their high insertion in low-wage jobs. " (Bernardo Kliksberg. 2002: 12)

Societies have been organized on the basis of sexual differences turned into political and social inequalities (Cobo, 1995, p.55). Gender thus constitutes a structuring element of society and influences all its areas. Social reality functions, in general, as a generic machine for the generation of real inequalities between women and men, especially in economic, political and reproductive activities. The roles, contents and evaluations of "the public" (socially assigned to the male gender, owner of the polis) and of "the private" (socially assigned to the female gender excluded from the polis) determine the relations between the two genders and define their position and conditions in a given society.

Table Nº 6. Interrelational approach

CONTEXT ACTORS INFLUENCE LIMITING ACHIEVEMENTS	AUTHORS
State-Society	Social groups and State	Generation of spaces by social actors in various subjects. Growth of collective actors and improvement of their conditions to influence the political processes	Impossibility of society to assume all the functions delegated by the State. Loss of autonomy of State Increasing sectorization of society	Greater interdependence of actors. More and more organized society	Dirk messner (1999), op.cit.
	Multiple	Bourgeois conception	Clear separation of civil society (associative) and State	Nancy fraser
State-Society	Collectives	Political processes		Messner and Lechner page 24
	Public - private	Policy design	Institutional Symbolic Politicians Cultural
Public sphere	Public Personal or private interests	Of social action		Fraser Page 3 Garretón Page 8 Cepal
Interaction	social		Fragmentation or polarization	Cesar Cansino Page 4
Civil society		Sonia Alvarez
					Femplress
	private	They assume functions accrued by the State

CONCLUSIONS

In Latin America, the concentrating traditions of power and action in the public administration were established since the Spanish colony and have evolved without being impaired, with the introduction of modernist liberalism of the 19th and early 20th centuries, and with the more socializing tendencies of the middle of the Last century. Paternalism, clientelism, caudillismo, have left consequences by creating dependency in the population with their Government and their political leaders.

Politicians convince the population that they need them to lavish the benefits of the state on them when they are elected or in government office. The partisan political function, the definition of public policies and the public administration are easily confused and messily mixed in ways that cannot produce the expected result. ⁱ

For its part, the Argentine National Public Administration declares a relative discrimination in the labor insertion of women; to access a certain category or position, they are required to have greater seniority and / or education than men and… the more they move up in the organizational structure, the lower the percentage of women ”. (Ruiz, Susana E.; Heller, Lidia 1985: 220).

The withdrawal of the State produced situations characterized by the increase of women heads of household and the “feminization of work reflected in the increase in the proportion of women within the active population and motivated by the need to compensate for the fall in

family income "(Torrado Susana. 1995). Similarly, Kliksberg believes that "some of the typical processes of the globalized economy opened opportunities for labor integration for women but at the same time meant disproportionate burdens and sacrifices for them." (Bernardo Kliksberg. 2002: 11).

The rethinking of the feminine way of life and the manifestation of political debates proposed by women further fortify the feminist movement, which incessantly contributes to the controversy agenda. In this way, all the hierarchies of the analysis acquire meaning in correspondence with the progress of the political system.

“It highlights that, for the purposes of promoting women to the highest levels and positions of greater responsibility, the anti-discrimination statements would not seem to be as relevant as the mechanisms by which the criteria for typecasting are selected. In the case analyzed, having left aside variables such as seniority in the Administration, level of education and professional training in the classification, it would seem to have resulted in a detriment to women incorporated into the SINAPA ladder. Based on the foregoing, she questions the effectiveness of privileging training actions for SINAPA women who are already occupying decision-making positions. ” (Zuleta, María Isabel, 1994: 11)

Gender inequalities establish limits or barriers to the success of public policies

From each approach, the obstacles that impede the advancement of women in state administration have been observed. Future research will increasingly examine the boundaries of each approach as old terms and concepts are applied in new reciprocal relationships.

Table Nº 7. Public policies and alternative solutions

Focus	Ideas force of public policy for the Public Administration	Alternative solutions
ORGANIZATIONAL	Elimination of prejudices	Inclusion of diversity in structures
CULTURAL	Elimination of gender discrimination	Creation of positions for women in balanced organizations
MANAGERIAL	Modern models of critical positions in the public sector	Unrestricted access with equal opportunities for all
POLITICAL	Greater opening of dialogue with the women's movement	Real and concrete application of equal opportunities
ECONOMIC	Employment vs. Salary situation in the Public Administration	Regularization of the gender pay gap
INTERRELATIONAL	Creation of permanent interaction spaces	Interorganizations, plurality, multiculturality

Other affirmative policies must address the crucial field of political participation. It is fundamental because of the contribution that women can make to it and because of the basic fact that the largest discriminated group in society makes its voice heard. Efforts should be made to actively build on the limited progress made. Along with all the previous policies and many other additions, collective action must continue to produce substantive changes in cultural attitudes and educational messages, where there are strong discriminatory contents, which are rooted in centuries of internalization of women. Among them, it is notable how basic education curricula continue in many cases, ignoring the problem of women, and disseminating the same traditional stereotypes about their role in society and their supposed limitations "

In reality, although some of the actions of the states have favored important advances in the situation of women, gender inequality is still a concrete reality, at least with regard to access to and control of resources, force o political position, effective participation in public decision-making processes, gaps in status and position in the labor market, and participation in reproductive work

Luis Angel Di Nucci

• BIBLIOGRAPHYAizenberg, Bachetta and others (1996): “From Penelope to Minerva: exploratory study on the leadership of women in politics”. Argentine Center for International Cooperation and Development. CACID Editor. Buenos Aires. Bartol and Butterfield (1976): "Sex Effects in Evaluation Leaders". Journal of applied Psychology 61 Buchelli, Marisa (1995): "Decomposition of wage differences between men and women." Journal of Economics, Finance and Administration. - Montevideo. - Year 28Caber, Naila (1998): Turned Realities: Gender Hierarchies in Development Thought. Editorial Paidos. México.Cagatay, Nilufer (1998): “Incorporation of Gender in Macroeconomics”. Article published in Macroeconomics, Gender and State, National Planning Department, Tercer Mundo Editores, Santafé de Bogotá, Colombia.Cansino, César (2001):“Crisis and transformation of politics. Reflections on the end-of-the-century State ”, published in the Mexican journal Metapolítica Nº 17, Vol 5 of March 2001. Fernández, Ana María. 2001. "The end of sexual genders." UBA. Buenos Aires.Filgueira, Nea (1990): Exclusion of women from the institutional political system Event: Seminar on Women and Power on the Margins of Uruguayan Democracy (1990 Aug. 31-Sept. 2: Montevideo). - Friedrich EbertForbes Foundation, Ian (1995): “Equal opportunities: conservative, radical and liberal critics. Feminaria.Buenos Aires, June 1995. Year VIII, No. 14.García de Fanelli, Ana (1990): Female employment in the national public sector / García deFanelli, Ana María… Buenos Aires: Center for State and Society Studies, CEDES documents; 33González, Soto, Villalba (2002):Paper specially prepared by the authors for PRIGEPP: “Dossier on public gender policies implemented in Paraguay between 1993-2002”. Asunción, ParaguayGuzmán, Virginia (2003): Unit 1, Seminar of the Regional Program of Public Policies, PRIGEPP, Buenos Aires Harcourt, Wendy and Arturo Escobar (2002): "Women and politics of place", Document specially prepared by the authors for PRIGEPP.Kanter, Rosabeth (1977): "Men and Women of the Corporation", New York. Basic Books. Kliksberg Bernardo (2002): "The condition of women in times of globalization" Some elements for reflection. Paper specially prepared by the author for PRIGEPP Lindenboim, Javier (2001): ¿Economic policy vs. job?: macroeconomics, unemployment and income /. - pp. 60-67 // in: Encrucijadas: Magazine of the University of Buenos Aires.- Buenos Aires. - Year 2 No. 13Mc Adam, Doug, John McCarthy and Mayer N. Zald. (1966): Comparative Perspectives on SocialMovements. Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures and Cultural Framings, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Cited in Unit 1 Olías de Lima, Blanca (2001): “The new public management”, Pearson Education S: A:, Madrid, Spain Oria Giordan, Sonia Elizabeth (2002): Public managers in the management of change /. –Montevideo: University of the Oriental Republic of Uruguay Radin, Beryl (1980): “Leadership Training for Woman in State an Local Government”. Public Personnel Management 9:53 Ruiz, Susana E.; Heller, Lidia (1985): Dynamics of female employment in the national public administration /. - Buenos Aires: National Institute of Public Administration. General Directorate of Investigations, 1985. - 220 p.; 2 v. Scalpi Diana (1999):"Violence in the Public Administration". Publisher Catalogs. Buenos Aires.Schaar, Jhon (1971): Equality of opportunity and beyond,. Contemporany Political Theory, London. NelsonSchubert, Renate (1997):Labor Market and Gender. Article published in GTZ (ed) Gender and Macro Policy, Eschborn.Silveira, Ines da; Hermida, Martha; Nazarenko, Natalia Presence of women in public administration (1990): Seminar on Women and Power on the Margins of Uruguayan Democracy, Montevideo. - Friedrich Ebert Foundation. Silverman, David (1971): “The Theory of Organizations, New York; Basic Book, United States  Totah, José (1998): “El Cronista” newspaper. February 5, 1998.

Guzmán Virginia (2003): Unit 1, Seminar of the Regional Program of Public Policies, PRIGEPP, Buenos Aires

Kanter Rosabeth (1977): "Men and Women of the Corporation", New York. Basic Books. Pages 246 to 248

Totah, José (1998): “El Cronista” newspaper. February 05, 1998

Silveira, Ines gives; Hermida, Martha; Nazarenko, Natalia Presence of women in public administration (1990): Seminar on Women and Power on the Margins of Uruguayan Democracy, Montevideo. - Friedrich Ebert Foundation.. 5 García de Fanelli, Ana (1990): Female employment in the national public sector / García de Fanelli, Ana María…. Buenos Aires: Center for State and Society Studies, 1990. - 79 p.. - (CEDES Documents; 33)

Ruiz, Susana E.; Heller, Lidia (1985): Dynamics of female employment in the national public administration /. - Buenos Aires: National Institute of Public Administration. Directorate General of Investigations, 1985. - 220 p.; 2 v.

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César Cansino (2001): “Crisis and transformation of politics. Reflections on the finisecular state ”, published in the Mexican journal Metapolítica Nº 17, Vol 5 of March 2001.

Scalpi Diana (1999): "Violence in the Public Administration". Publisher Catalogs. Buenos Aires, 1999, p. 216

Fernández, Ana María. 2001. "The end of sexual genders." UBA. Buenos Aires.

The Emile by Jean-Jacques Rousseau (first edition of 1762. Unit 1

Bartol and Butterfield (1976): "Sex Effects in Evaluation Leaders". Journal of applied Psychology 61: 447

Olías de Lima, Blanca (2001): "The new public management", Pearson Education S: A:, Madrid, Spain, Pg. 22,23

Oria Giordan, Sonia Elizabeth (2002): Public managers in the management of change /. - Montevideo: University of the Oriental Republic of Uruguay, Page 14.

Scalpi Diana (1999): "Violence in the Public Administration". Publisher Catalogs. Buenos Aires. Page 205.

Bowman, Worthy and Greyser (1965): Ob. cit

Radin, Beryl (1980): "Leadership Training for Woman in State an Local Government". Public Personnel Management 9:53

Kliksberg Bernardo (2002): "The condition of women in times of globalization" Some elements for reflection. Paper specially prepared by the author for PRIGEPP. P. 11

The study was carried out by the "US General Accountig Office"

Wendy Harcourt and Arturo Escobar (2002): "Women and politics of place", Document specially prepared by the authors for PRIGEPP. 2002, page 8

Klein, Ethel: Ob. cit

González, Soto, Villalba (2002): Paper specially prepared by the authors for PRIGEPP. "Dossier on public gender policies implemented in Paraguay between 1993-2002". Page 16. Asuncion

Guzmán Virginia (2003): Ob. cit

Wendy Harcourt and Arturo Escobar (2003): "Women and politics of place", Document specially prepared by the authors for PRIGEPP, Page 8

Aizenberg, Bachetta and others (1996): “From Penelope to Minerva: exploratory study on the leadership of women in politics”. Argentine Center for International Cooperation and Development. CACID Editor. Buenos Aires.

Forbes, Ian (1995): “Equal opportunities: conservative, radical and liberal critics. Feminaria. Buenos Aires, June 1995. Year VIII, Nº 14

Schaar, Jhon (1971): Equality of opportunity and beyond, pages 135-143. Contemporany Political Theory, London. Nelson 32 Guzmán-Todaro: Ob. Cit, pp. 38-40

Doug Mc Adam, John McCarthy, and Mayer N. Zald. (1966): Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements. Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures and Cultural Framings, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Cited in Unit 1 34 Guzmán-Todaro. Frempress. Pages 38-40

Cagatay, Nilufer (1998): "Incorporation of Gender in Macroeconomics". Article published in Macroeconomics, Gender and State, National Planning Department, Tercer Mundo Editores, Santa Fe de Bogotá, Colombia,

Lindenboim, Javier (2001): Economic policy vs. job?: macroeconomics, unemployment and income /. - pp. 60-67 // in: Encrucijadas: Magazine of the University of Buenos Aires. - Buenos Aires. - Year 2 No. 13

Schubert, Renate (1997): Labor Market and Gender. Article published in GTZ (ed) Gender and Macro Policy, Eschborn, p. 120. 38

Norbert Lechner and Dirk Messner, cited in Unit 2

Kliksberg, Bernardo (2002): Ob. cit. Page 12

Dirk Messner (1999), op.cit.

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