In some of our Workshops, Courses and Seminars it is frequent that questions arise from participants who occupy managerial and executive positions in corporations as well as owners - entrepreneurs, which are related to trying to "discover" which are the key aspects that must be taken into account to maximize organizational efficiency.
For this we try to introduce them into the schemes traditionally used by researchers and academics within the Behavioral Sciences in Organizations, who also try to find discoveries where:
- The hypotheses of other "previous" researchers, practitioners and academics are validated. It is about finding the validity of a "new" hypothesis that they have dedicated themselves to investigating.
Under both proposals it is necessary that the person who has this type of curiosity can clearly define what is the most relevant in which he is interested.
A corporate manager may be interested in increasing the utility of the company and that this is reflected in dividends for shareholders, and it may be that another manager - even within the same industry sector - favors the development of a vigorous business / organizational culture. These two different variables that interest these managers represent what we call "dependent variables."
It is important to bear in mind that in the course of the life of a company, managers may have to privilege these two variables at two different times; Other dependent variables may even appear, such as "the market share" that the company has with respect to one or more of its products.
Now, the fact of clearly defining the dependent variable is part of the work and the important “discovery” for these managers and entrepreneurs - owners has to do with what causes or causes changes in that dependent variable that has been chosen.
What do we mean by this? We must now take into account other new variables which we assume impact in some way on our chosen dependent variable. These variables that - supposedly have a causal relationship with the dependent variable - are called “independent variables”.
For example, in the case of the choice of the dependent variable mentioned above (increasing the profit of the companies and the payment of dividends to shareholders), possibly the focus of the managers is placed on increasing income by sales or reducing expenses, or perhaps considering both as the main “independent” variables.
On the other hand, in the case of having chosen as a dependent variable to develop “a vigorous business / organizational culture, possibly the efforts of the management and / or the owner should be oriented towards other aspects, such as: staff motivation, training and training, analysis of the reward system, development of teamwork, greater participation of staff in decision-making.
These other aspects that we have mentioned become in this way the independent variables in the event that we are interested in developing a vigorous culture.
For those interested in delving deeper into this topic, we can suggest they go to our "Practices" where these new skills are developed through different types of exercises.
And then by owning them, they must be in a better position to interpret the theoretical and conceptual frameworks of other notable experts. Through our Organizational Change interventions we have learned that consultants often underestimate the capabilities of our Clients, especially when it comes to Entrepreneurs who are Owners of their businesses.
One of my findings shows evidence that an intervention can be initiated as a result of the Consultant sharing with the Owner "what different notable experts would do" under the situation the company is experiencing.
And the results have shown us that these same owners have been very effective in facilitating the process of introducing Organizational Change as a result of this particular form of organizational intervention (Congreso de Desarrollo Organizacional; Argentina - 1999. Workshop: Can Consultants share with Clients, what do they as Consultants have in their heads?).
So far it seems that the work of a corporate manager or an entrepreneur - owner should not be so difficult.
After a certain time each of them, based on their experience within their respective companies, must have learned enough to know which are the most independent variables and to what extent they should dose doses so that each of them has a greater incidence. (positive) on the dependent variable in which they are interested.
But something emerges that those who are familiar with the Behavioral Sciences in Organizations recognize as valid, but not necessarily recognized by the rest of the people.
There is not a single millionaire on the planet, nor a single successful person, who has not known how to interact with others. Even artists have had to "get along" with their sponsors on duty, and it is possible that some plastic artist and a few others in the world have achieved success.
But it turns out that the very few who have achieved it "without others" in the case of plastic artists, their successful fame has required their death; they are "marchers" (many of them) who take advantage of what the artist has produced.
What we are suggesting is that there is a new variable but that it goes beyond the dependent variable that we chose as most important, and it also goes beyond the different independent variables that we have "discovered."
It is an "intervening" variable that acts as a moderator of the relationship between the discovered independent variables and our dependent variable on which we are focusing.
When the intervening variable acts as moderator, we find ourselves with a particular situation that is no longer so easy to handle within the business world.
And what is really an intervening variable that influences by moderating the relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable?
You may ask: Why not explain it in a simpler way?
Well, let's consider the following situation.
In a few companies and also in many businesses we find that it has been arranged to have music during working hours or customer service hours.
What is the general hypothesis regarding this decision made by the top manager?
The manager has assumed that, in the case of a company, his staff have to work more effectively if we create an environment with music, while in the case of a business the assumption is that in addition to the staff, Clients also feel better in the business when they listen to music.
Something similar happens when corporate managers or business owners decide to install air conditioning equipment; the basic assumption is that it has to improve the company's climate, people's satisfaction and efficiency.
Well, this is not always the case. The intensity of the music - that is, the volume - can influence the supposed univocal relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable.
It is obvious that if the music is played at full volume people do not have to be very effective in their work, and this can also be true if the music is at very low levels.
There is what we call a "middle" term where we DO find that, for sure, there is a unique relationship between the independent variable (music) and the dependent variable.
The same happens with air conditioning, since very low or very high intensity instances can produce the opposite effects of what we expect.
In both cases, the intensity of the music and the intensity of the temperature of the air conditioning equipment, both act as intervening variables that are characterized by moderating the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
Something similar happens with the different units of analysis that have to do with the performance of organizations.
Some things that we have learned regarding individual behavior are not enough to efficiently run businesses and organizations. A whole body of knowledge has been born that has to do with issues related to what we call the second unit of analysis: the group.
The individual is the first unit of analysis and the organization is the third, but the link between the two is produced through the second unit of analysis, which is the group.
The group activity then alters the relationships that we can give as valid when in our heads (metaphorically speaking since it really is in our minds) we have preferably the people and the company.
The literature on groups within organizations covers (at a minimum) the following aspects:
- - What is really a Group - How it differs from a Team - What happens differentially as a result of groups of two, of three, in small groups and in large groups - How groups are created - Group formation process - Growth of groups - Formal regulations in groups - The distribution of resources in groups - Functional - and dysfunctional - aspects of growing groups to take into account - Functions, roles and positions of the occupants - The role of status within the groups - The group in movement (group dynamics) - The processes of facilitation of ideas in groups - The processes of implementation of ideas in groups - Cohesion: its influence on groups.- Functional and dysfunctional aspects of cohesion - Incorporating risk in the work group - How competitive and cooperative forces operate - The moment of termination of the group.
In a field work carried out about 10 years ago where the points recently mentioned have been exposed with experts in the field, we have found that both corporate managers and executives as well as business owners, were largely unaware of both: the knowledge and also the authors of that knowledge.
We have edited a work on the behavior of groups in organizations and companies to precisely make available to corporate executives knowledge on this important issue, which can be consulted by you, dear reader, at: www.gestiopolis.com
And now, with the purpose of further expanding the knowledge and making it available to executives and entrepreneurs, we are adding to the material in Groups, this first Bibliography in Spanish on these contents that are of vital importance to be able to create effective and efficient companies and organizations.
People can be successful by practicing, and through the extraordinary method of learning known as trial and error, many advances have been made. We try to go even one step further and add knowledge of the different disciplines for the best practical achievement.
Although it sounds paradoxical, the conquest of space has been possible due to the fact that in the last 70 years there are certain knowledge and concepts that allow the sending of a ship into space to be put into practice, and that it can return with its crew. With practice alone, we would have struggled to achieve today's space gains.
Entrepreneurs and corporate managers now have a very consistent body of concepts that allow them to have a frame of reference that provides greater security in the success of their ventures. Not making use of them, leads the entrepreneurs to what is known as "playing in the Casino" where it is usually the groupier - and not the one who plays - who takes the winnings.
We gladly accept new suggestions on materials on the subject of “Groups in organizations / companies”. From now on we welcome them and our thanks.
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Whitman, Roy (1964) "Psychodynamic Principles Underlying T-Group Processes." In Gradford, Gibb, and Benne (eds.), T-Group Theory and Laboratory Method. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Winnicott, D. (1953). "Transitional Objects and Transitional Phenomena." International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, volume 34.
Winter, S. (1974). "Inter-racial Dynamics in Self-Analytic Groups." In Gibbard, Hartmann, and Mann (eds.), Analysis of Groups. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Worthy, JC (1950). Organizational structure and employee morale. American Sociological Review, volume 15.
Yalom, Irvin D. (1970). The Theory and Practice of Group Psychotherapy. New York: Basic Books.
Yazinuma, M., & Kennedy, R. (1986). Life is so simple when you know your place. Intersect. May
Yoshino, MY (1968). Japan's managerial system: Tradition and innovation. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Young, SM (1992). A framework for successful adoption and performance of Japanese manufacturing practices in the United States. Academy of Management Executive issue 17.
Yukl, GH (1989). Leadership in organizations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Yum, Y. 0. (1988). The impact of Confucianism on interpersonal relationships and communication patterns in East Asia. Communication Monographs, issue 55.
We would be grateful to the readers for any contribution and contribution they can make to this first Bibliography in Spanish, regarding the behavior of "Groups in Organizations".
